Detection of Yersinia ruckeri in rainbow trout blood by use of the polymerase chain reaction

We evaluated a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method for detecting Yersinia ruckeri, the bacterial pathogen causing enteric redmouth disease (ERM), in blood of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Identification of the PCR product was confirmed by Southern blot hybridization with a 32P-labeled oligonucleotide probe matching a sequence within the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene of Y. ruckeri. Following a 1 h immersion of rainbow trout in water with 4.5 x 10(6) colony-forming units of Y. ruckeri l(-1), the PCR was positive for all blood samples from 1 h (first sample) to 5 d and was negative from 9 to 30 d (last sample). Fish in this experiment did not show signs of disease, probably because they had been vaccinated against Y. ruckeri. To test this method with naturally infected fish, 42 rainbow trout from hatcheries were examined. Four of these fish had clinical signs of ERM and were infected with Y. ruckeri based on bacteriological culture. The PCR method detected Y. ruckeri in blood, intestine, liver, and trunk kidney from the 4 fish with ERM and from 5 additional rainbow trout that were bacteriologically negative for Y. ruckeri. Three of 5 rainbow trout from streams receiving effluent from hatcheries were positive for Y. ruckeri when tested with PCR, although there was no growth of Y. ruckeri on culture plates inoculated with the same samples. Samples were successfully stored for 1 wk in lysis buffer at 25 degrees C. This study demonstrated that a non-lethal blood sample can be used with PCR to detect Y. ruckeri.     

Recovery of a new biogroup of Yersinia ruckeri from diseased rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss,Walbaum)

Cultures of a new biogroup of Yersinia ruckeri, the causal agent of enteric redmouth (ERM), were recovered in England from diseased rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum), which had been previously vaccinated with a commercial ERM vaccine. The bacterial isolates were confirmed as Y. ruckeri by the results of sequencing the 16S rRNA, but differed from the characteristics of the taxon by positivity for the Voges Proskauer reaction and a general lack of motility, and could not be equated with any of the existing serovars. Cultures were pathogenic in laboratory-based infectivity experiments with 100% mortalities occurring in juvenile rainbow trout (average weight = 10 g) within 4-days of intraperitoneal or intramuscular injection with 10(5) cells/fish. Protection against disease was achieved using a formalin-inactivated whole vaccine prepared against a representative isolate.     

Association between plasma antibody response and protection in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss immersion vaccinated against Yersinia ruckeri

A key hallmark of the vertebrate adaptive immune system is the generation of antigen-specific antibodies from B cells. Fish are the most primitive gnathostomes (jawed vertebrates) possessing an adaptive immune system. Vaccination of rainbow trout against enteric redmouth disease (ERM) by immersion in Yersinia ruckeri bacterin confers a high degree of protection to the fish. The immune mechanisms responsible for protection may comprise both cellular and humoral elements but the role of specific immunoglobulins in this system has been questioned and not previously described. The present study demonstrates significant increase in plasma antibody titers following immersion vaccination and significantly reduced mortality during Y. ruckeri challenge.Rainbow trout were immersion-vaccinated, using either a commercial ERM vaccine (AquaVac™ ERM vet) or an experimental Y. ruckeri bacterin. Half of the trout vaccinated with AquaVac™ ERM vet received an oral booster (AquaVac™ ERM Oral vet). Sub-groups of the fish from each group were subsequently exposed to 1x10⁹ CFU Y. ruckeri/ml either eight or twenty-six weeks post vaccination (wpv). All vaccinated groups showed 0% mortality when challenged, which was highly significant compared to the non-vaccinated controls (40 and 28% mortality eight and twenty-six weeks post vaccination (wpv), respectively) (P<0.0001). Plasma samples from all groups of vaccinated fish were taken 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 and 26 wpv. and Y. ruckeri specific IgM antibody levels were measured with ELISA. A significant increase in titers was recorded in vaccinated fish, which also showed a reduced bacteremia during challenge. In vitro plasma studies showed a significantly increased bactericidal effect of fresh plasma from vaccinated fish indicating that plasma proteins may play a role in protection of vaccinated rainbow trout.     

Temperature-dependent expression of immune-relevant genes in rainbow trout following Yersinia ruckeri vaccination

The gene expression of immune-relevant genes in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss following vaccination with a bacterin of Yersinia ruckeri, a bacterial pathogen causing enteric red mouth disease (ERM), was investigated at 5, 15, and 25 degrees C. Rainbow trout were immunized by i.p. injection of a water-based Y. ruckeri (serotype O1) bacterin, and gene expression profiles were compared to control groups injected with phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Blood and tissue samples (spleen and head kidney) were taken for subsequent analysis using solid phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and real-time PCR, respectively. The up-regulation of cytokine genes was generally faster and higher at high water temperature, with major expression at 25 degrees C. The proinflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-1beta and interferon (IFN)-gamma were significantly up-regulated in all immunized groups, whereas the cytokine IL-10 was only up-regulated in fish kept at 15 and 25 degrees C. The gene encoding the C5a (anaphylatoxin) receptor was expressed at a significantly increased level in both head kidney and spleen of immunized fish. The secreted immunoglobulin M (IgM)-encoding gene was significantly up-regulated in the head kidney of immunized trout reared at 25 degrees C, and a positive correlation (r = 0.663) was found between gene expression of secreted IgM in the head kidney and Y. ruckeri-specific antibodies in plasma measured by ELISA. However, no regulation of the teleost specific immunoglobulin T (IgT), which was generally expressed at a much lower level than IgM, could be detected. The study indicated that expression of both innate and specific adaptive immune-response genes are highly temperature-dependent in rainbow trout.     

Innate immune responses in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum) induced by probiotics

Carnobacterium maltaromaticum B26 and Carnobacterium divergens B33, which were isolated from the intestine of healthy rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum), were selected as being potentially useful as probiotics with effectiveness against Aeromonas salmonicida and Yersinia ruckeri. Thus, rainbow trout administered with feed supplemented with B26 or B33 dosed at >10(7) cells g(-1) feed conferred protection against challenge with virulent cultures of the pathogens. Moreover, both cultures persisted in the gut for up to 3 weeks after administration. The cultures enhanced the cellular and humoral immune responses. Specifically, fish fed with B26 demonstrated significantly increased phagocytic activity of the head kidney macrophages, whereas the use of B33 led to significant increases in respiratory burst and serum lysozyme activity. Also, the gut mucosal lysozyme activity for fish fed with both cultures was statistically higher than the controls.     

Intraperitoneal vaccination of Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua with heat-killed Listonella anguillarum enhances serum antibacterial activity and expression of immune response genes

Serum-mediated reduction in bacterial count and expression of a number of immune response genes in the blood of Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua were investigated following intraperitoneal vaccination with heat-killed Listonella (Vibrio) anguillarum. Blood was collected from the caudal vein of both vaccinated and non-vaccinated (PBS-injected) fish at 0, 1, 3, 7 and 10 days post-vaccination (dpv). Serum protein concentration and antibacterial activity of the serum samples were determined. Whole blood was used for semi-quantitative RT-PCR of immune-related genes. Total serum protein was not significantly different between the vaccinated and non-vaccinated groups. Sera from the vaccinated fish significantly reduced L. anguillarum count on 3 dpv, with reductions of at least 2 log colony forming units per ml (CFU/ml) relative to the non-vaccinated fish. Expression of antibacterial genes, bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein/lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (BPI/LBP), g-type lysozyme and transferrin was significantly upregulated in the vaccinated fish, with maximum expression within 7 dpv. Cytotoxic-related and cell-mediated immunity genes such as, apolipoprotein A-I and the non-specific cytotoxic cell receptor protein (NCCRP-1) had maximum expression at 3 and 7 dpv, respectively. Significant upregulation in expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1 beta and IL-8 was also observed in the vaccinated fish at 1 dpv. The upregulation of immune response genes following vaccination provides valuable information in the understanding of immune mechanisms against vibriosis in Atlantic cod particularly on the acute phase response during bacterial infection.     

Adjuvanticity effect of sodium alginate on subcutaneously injected BCG in BALB/c mice

Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) is the only available vaccine against tuberculosis. The research for an improved vaccine is currently a very active field of investigation. In the present study, adjuvanticity effect of sterile sodium alginate on subcutaneous BCG vaccination in BALB/c mice was investigated. Mice were vaccinated subcutaneously with BCG plus alginate and the immune response and protective effect were compared to those of mice vaccinated with BCG alone by the same route. Proliferative and delayed-type hypersensitivity responses, IFN-γ, specific anti-mycobacterium total IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a production were significantly higher in mice immunized subcutaneously with BCG plus alginate in comparison with results of mice immunized with BCG alone. Following systemic infection with BCG, mice vaccinated with BCG plus alginate had lower mean bacterial count compared to those vaccinated with BCG alone. The immune responses induced by subcutaneous administration of BCG plus alginate were significantly better than the responses induced by standard BCG vaccination.     

Alternative Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccines Adjuvanted with Quillaja brasiliensis or Quil-A Saponins Are Equally Effective in Inducing Specific Immune Responses

Inactivated polio vaccines (IPV) have an important role at the final stages of poliomyelitis eradication programs, reducing the risks associated with the use of attenuated polio vaccine (OPV). An affordable option to enhance vaccine immunogenicity and reduce costs of IPV may be the use of an effective and renewable adjuvant. In the present study, the adjuvant activity of aqueous extract (AE) and saponin fraction QB-90 from Quillaja brasiliensis using poliovirus antigen as model were analyzed and compared to a preparation adjuvanted with Quil-A, a well-known saponin-based commercial adjuvant. Experimental vaccines were prepared with viral antigen plus saline (control), Quil-A (50 µg), AE (400 µg) or QB-90 (50 µg). Sera from inoculated mice were collected at days 0, 28, 42 and 56 post-inoculation of the first dose of vaccine. Serum levels of specific IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a were significantly enhanced by AE, QB-90 and Quil-A compared to control group on day 56. The magnitude of enhancement was statistically equivalent for QB-90 and Quil-A. The cellular response was evaluated through DTH and analysis of IFN-γ and IL-2 mRNA levels using in vitro reestimulated splenocytes. Results indicated that AE and QB-90 were capable of stimulating the generation of Th1 cells against the administered antigen to the same extent as Quil-A. Mucosal immune response was enhanced by the vaccine adjuvanted with QB-90 as demonstrated by increases of specific IgA titers in bile, feces and vaginal washings, yielding comparable or higher titers than Quil-A. The results obtained indicate that saponins from Q. brasiliensis are potent adjuvants of specific cellular and humoral immune responses and represent a viable option to Quil-A.     

Manipulation of immune responses to Mycobacterium bovis by vaccination with IL-2- and IL-18-secreting recombinant bacillus Calmette Guerin

Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) has been reported to show variable efficacy as a vaccine against tuberculosis. We demonstrated that the secretion of biologically active IL-2 (rBCG/IL-2),but not IL-18 (rBCG/IL-18), by BCG improves its ability to induce and maintain a strong type 1 immune response in BALB/c mice. rBCG/IL-2 induced significantly higher Ag-specific proliferative responses, high IFN-gamma production and serum titres of IgG2a 16 weeks after vaccination. This immune profile was correlated to an increased rate of clearance of non-pathogenic mycobacteria (live BCG delivered intranasally). Surprisingly, however,this strong type 1 immune profile induced no greater protective immunity against aerosol challenge with virulent Mycobacterium bovis than that induced by normal BCG (nBCG). By comparison,vaccination with rBCG/IL-18 was found to induce significantly less IFN-gamma production in splenic lymphocytes than nBCG.This impaired induction of IFN-gamma was correlated to a significantly lower protective efficacy against M. bovis challenge, as compared to nBCG. The data suggest that manipulation of the immune response to tuberculosis and tuberculosis vaccines will require a more complete understanding of the factors that are important in generating a protective immune response.     

Dietary administration of beta-mercapto-ethanol treated Saccharomyces cerevisiae enhanced the growth, innate immune response and disease resistance of the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss

The effects of dietary whole cell yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), n-3 HUFA-enriched yeast and treated yeast cells with beta-mercapto-ethanol (2ME) on immunity, growth performance and disease resistance to Yersinia ruckeri were investigated in Oncorhynchus mykiss. During 30 days, juvenile rainbow trout were fed diets supplemented with different forms of yeast at 5 × 10(7) CFU g(-1) or a control diet. After the feeding trial, remaining fish of each treatment were challenged by pathogenic Yersinia ruckeri and kept under observation for 14 days to record clinical signs and daily mortality rate. Yeast supplementation in all treatment groups significantly promoted the growth performance compared to control group. A significantly increase was also observed in immune responses in juvenile fish fed 2ME-treated yeast diet. More ever, the lowest fish mortality was obtained in this treatment group. The present results show that a diet supplemented with 2ME-treated yeast stimulates the immune system and growth of juvenile rainbow trout thus enhancing their resistance against Y. ruckeri.     

Global 3D Imaging of Yersinia ruckeri Bacterin Uptake in Rainbow Trout Fry

Yersinia ruckeri is the causative agent of enteric redmouth disease (ERM) in rainbow trout, and the first commercially available fish vaccine was an immersion vaccine against ERM consisting of Y. ruckeri bacterin. The ERM immersion vaccine has been successfully used in aquaculture farming of salmonids for more than 35 years. The gills and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract are believed to be the portals of antigen uptake during waterborne vaccination against ERM; however, the actual sites of bacterin uptake are only partly understood. In order to obtain insight into bacterin uptake during waterborne vaccination, optical projection tomography (OPT) together with immunohistochemistry (IHC) was applied to visualize bacterin uptake and processing in whole rainbow trout fry. Visualization by OPT revealed that the bacterin was initially taken up via gill lamellae from within 30 seconds post vaccination. Later, bacterin uptake was detected on other mucosal surfaces such as skin and olfactory bulb from 5 to 30 minutes post vaccination. The GI tract was found to be filled with a complex of bacterin and mucus at 3 hours post vaccination and the bacterin remained in the GI tract for at least 24 hours. Large amounts of bacterin were present in the blood, and an accumulation of bacterin was found in filtering lymphoid organs such as spleen and trunk kidney where the bacterin accumulates 24 hours post vaccination as demonstrated by OPT and IHC. These results suggest that bacterin is taken up via the gill epithelium in the earliest phases of the bath exposure and from the GI tract in the later phase. The bacterin then enters the blood circulatory system, after which it is filtered by spleen and trunk kidney, before finally accumulating in lymphoid organs where adaptive immunity against ERM is likely to develop.     

Correlation of immune assays with protection in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, immersed in Vibrio bacterins

One hundred kg of Rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, weighing 80–100g each were immersed in a formalized, bivalent vaccine of Vibrio anguiliárum (VA) and Vibrio ordalii (VO), at a1/10 dilution for 30s at 10°C. The protection levels achieved at 8 and 10 weeks post vaccination were assessed by intraperitoneal challenge with 10⁵ live V. anguillarnm or V. ordalii. No decline in protection due to antigen depletion was found between batches throughout the procedure. The protection conferred by one component of the vaccine was slightly better than the other (80% against VO and 42 % against VA). A number of measures of immunity were monitored before and after challenge. These included serum and mucus antibody litres, bactericidal effects of serum and mucus and phagocytosis by peritoneal exudate cells. Serum antibody was present (peak litre of-log₂ 3.25 for VO, and 4.4 for VA) but had declined to background levels by the time of challenge, whereas bactericidal effects and phagocytosis rate of 40% were not increased by vaccination. The most likely immune mechanism responsible for the observed protection was discussed and suggested to be a cellular mechanism where serum antibody acts as an opsonin to increase phagocytosis.     

The effect of sublethal endrin exposure on rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson. II. The effect of altering serum cortisol concentrations on the immune response

The effect of altering serum cortisol concentrations on the immune response was elucidated in endrin- and non-endrin-exposed rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. Fish were immunized with 10 μg of Yersinia ruckeri O-antigen following 30 days of treatment. The migration inhibition factor assay (MIF), plaque-forming cell assay (PFC) and serum agglutination titres (SAG) were performed 2, 14 and 30 days post-antigen inoculation. Endrin exposure was continued subsequent to antigen inoculation. Control fish were fed 20 and 35 mg kg⁻¹ body weight day⁻¹ of cortisol and metyrapone, respectively. Endrin-exposed fish received 35 mg kg⁻¹ body weight day⁻¹ of metyrapone in their diet. Control fish receiving cortisol had significantly reduced MIF, PFC and SAG responses. The MIF response was completely restored in endrin-exposed fish receiving dietary metyrapone. The PFC response and SAG titres were partially restored, 61 and 69% respectively, in endrin-exposed fish receiving metyrapone. The results indicate that elevated serum cortisol concentration obtained in endrin-exposed fish has a central role in repression of the immune response.     

The bactericidal action of human neutrophils on meningococci in vitro

32 Russian patients with late complement component deficiency (LCCD) were immunize with tetravalent meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine (A + C + W135 + Y). Their immune response and infectious morbidity rate were followed for 6 years and the partial protective efficacy of vaccination was demonstrated. As the antibody-mediated complement-induced bactericidal activity of plasma was completely absent in persons with LCCD, the bactericidal action of human neutrophils on meningococci of groups A, W135 and B was studied under the conditions of incubation with serum samples collected from persons with LCCD before and after vaccination. In LCCD serum alone the exponential growth of meningococci was observed, while the addition of human neutrophils resulted in the essential inhibition of the growth of meningococci (up to their complete elimination). The proportion of serum samples stimulating the elimination of group A and W 135 meningococci by neutrophils was almost 40% of the serum samples collected before vaccination and significantly increased among the serum samples collected after vaccination (up to 84%) or revaccination (up to 90%). At the same time the capacity of an individual serum sample to promote the bactericidal effect of neutrophils against meningococci correlated with its content of specific anti-polysaccharide IgG and IgM antibodies, as well as antibodies to the inner core of lipopolysaccharide. The interaction of neutrophils with meningococci was significantly inhibited after incubation in heat-inactivated serum, suggesting that this interaction was partly mediated along the following path: the binding of IgM and IgG antibodies with bacteria--the activation of complement and the deposition of C3 complement on bacteria--the binding of meningococci with CR3 receptors of neutrophils.