Crystal Structure and Functional Characterization of the Complement Regulator Mannose-binding Lectin (MBL)/Ficolin-associated Protein-1 (MAP-1)

The human lectin complement pathway activation molecules comprise mannose-binding lectin (MBL) and ficolin-1, -2, and -3 in complex with associated serine proteases MASP-1, -2, and -3 and the non-enzymatic small MBL associated protein or sMAP. Recently, a novel plasma protein named MBL/ficolin-associated protein-1 (MAP-1) was identified in humans. This protein is the result of a differential splicing of the MASP1 gene and includes the major part of the heavy chain but lacks the serine protease domain. We investigated the direct interactions of MAP-1 and MASP-3 with ficolin-3 and MBL using surface plasmon resonance and found affinities around 5 nm and 2.5 nm, respectively. We studied structural aspects of MAP-1 and could show by multi-angle laser light scattering that MAP-1 forms a calcium-dependent homodimer in solution. We were able to determine the crystal structure of MAP-1, which also contains a head-to-tail dimer ∼146 Å long. This structure of MAP-1 also enables modeling and assembly of the MASP-1 molecule in its entirety. Finally we found that MAP-1 competes with all three MASPs for ligand binding and is able to mediate a strong dose-dependent inhibitory effect on the lectin pathway activation, as measured by levels of C3 and C9.     

Identification of a Supramolecular Functional Architecture of Streptococcus mutans Adhesin P1 on the Bacterial Cell Surface

P1 (antigen I/II) is a sucrose-independent adhesin of Streptococcus mutans whose functional architecture on the cell surface is not fully understood. S. mutans cells subjected to mechanical extraction were significantly diminished in adherence to immobilized salivary agglutinin but remained immunoreactive and were readily aggregated by fluid-phase salivary agglutinin. Bacterial adherence was restored by incubation of postextracted cells with P1 fragments that contain each of the two known adhesive domains. In contrast to untreated cells, glutaraldehyde-treated bacteria gained reactivity with anti-C-terminal monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), whereas epitopes recognized by mAbs against other portions of the molecule were masked. Surface plasmon resonance experiments demonstrated the ability of apical and C-terminal fragments of P1 to interact. Binding of several different anti-P1 mAbs to unfixed cells triggered release of a C-terminal fragment from the bacterial surface, suggesting a novel mechanism of action of certain adherence-inhibiting antibodies. We also used atomic force microscopy-based single molecule force spectroscopy with tips bearing various mAbs to elucidate the spatial organization and orientation of P1 on living bacteria. The similar rupture lengths detected using mAbs against the head and C-terminal regions, which are widely separated in the tertiary structure, suggest a higher order architecture in which these domains are in close proximity on the cell surface. Taken together, our results suggest a supramolecular organization in which additional P1 polypeptides, including the C-terminal segment originally identified as antigen II, associate with covalently attached P1 to form the functional adhesive layer.     

Fucose-binding lectin from opportunistic pathogen Burkholderia ambifaria binds to both plant and human oligosaccharidic epitopes

Burkholderia ambifaria is generally associated with the rhizosphere of plants where it has biocontrol effects on other microorganisms. It is also a member of the Burkholderia cepacia complex, a group of closely related bacteria that cause lung infections in immunocompromised patients as well as in patients with granulomatous disease or cystic fibrosis. Our previous work indicated that fucose on human epithelia is a frequent target for lectins and adhesins of lung pathogens (Sulák, O., Cioci, G., Lameignère, E., Balloy, V., Round, A., Gutsche, I., Malinovská, L., Chignard, M., Kosma, P., Aubert, D. F., Marolda, C. L., Valvano, M. A., Wimmerová, M., and Imberty, A. (2011) PLoS Pathog. 7, e1002238). Analysis of the B. ambifaria genome identified BambL as a putative fucose-binding lectin. The 87-amino acid protein was produced recombinantly and demonstrated to bind to fucosylated oligosaccharides with a preference for αFuc1-2Gal epitopes. Crystal structures revealed that it associates as a trimer with two fucose-binding sites per monomer. The overall fold is a six-bladed β-propeller formed by oligomerization as in the Ralstonia solanacearum lectin and not by sequential domains like the fungal fucose lectin from Aleuria aurantia. The affinity of BambL for small fucosylated glycans is very high as demonstrated by microcalorimetry (K(D) < 1 μM). Plant cell wall oligosaccharides and human histo-blood group oligosaccharides H-type 2 and Lewis Y are bound with equivalent efficiency. Binding to artificial glycosphingolipid-containing vesicles, human saliva, and lung tissues confirmed that BambL could recognize a wide spectrum of fucosylated epitopes, albeit with a lower affinity for biological material from nonsecretor individuals.     

Structural basis of tumor suppressor in lung cancer 1 (TSLC1) binding to differentially expressed in adenocarcinoma of the lung (DAL-1/4.1B)

Perturbed cell adhesion mechanisms are crucial for tumor invasion and metastasis. A cell adhesion protein, TSLC1 (tumor suppressor in lung cancer 1), is inactivated in a majority of metastatic cancers. DAL-1 (differentially expressed in adenocarcinoma of the lung protein), another tumor suppressor, binds through its FERM domain to the TSLC1 C-terminal, 4.1 glycophorin C-like, cytoplasmic domain. However, the molecular basis for this interaction is unknown. Here, we describe the crystal structure of a complex between the DAL-1 FERM domain and a portion of the TSLC1 cytoplasmic domain. DAL-1 binds to TSLC1 through conserved residues in a well defined hydrophobic pocket in the structural C-lobe of the DAL-1 FERM domain. From the crystal structure, it is apparent that Tyr(406) and Thr(408) in the TSLC1 cytoplasmic domain form the most important interactions with DAL-1, and this was also confirmed by surface plasmon resonance studies. Our results refute earlier exon deletion experiments that indicated that glycophorin C interacts with the α-lobe of 4.1 FERM domains.     

A specific interaction of small molecule entry inhibitors with the envelope glycoprotein complex of the Junín hemorrhagic fever arenavirus

Arenaviruses are responsible for acute hemorrhagic fevers worldwide and are recognized to pose significant threats to public health and biodefense. Small molecule compounds have recently been discovered that inhibit arenavirus entry and protect against lethal infection in animal models. These chemically distinct inhibitors act on the tripartite envelope glycoprotein (GPC) through its unusual stable signal peptide subunit to stabilize the complex against pH-induced activation of membrane fusion in the endosome. Here, we report the production and characterization of the intact transmembrane GPC complex of Junín arenavirus and its interaction with these inhibitors. The solubilized GPC is antigenically indistinguishable from the native protein and forms a homogeneous trimer in solution. When reconstituted into a lipid bilayer, the purified complex interacts specifically with its cell-surface receptor transferrin receptor-1. We show that small molecule entry inhibitors specific to New World or Old World arenaviruses bind to the membrane-associated GPC complex in accordance with their respective species selectivities and with dissociation constants comparable with concentrations that inhibit GPC-mediated membrane fusion. Furthermore, competitive binding studies reveal that these chemically distinct inhibitors share a common binding pocket on GPC. In conjunction with previous genetic studies, these findings identify the pH-sensing interface of GPC as a highly vulnerable target for antiviral intervention. This work expands our mechanistic understanding of arenavirus entry and provides a foundation to guide the development of small molecule compounds for the treatment of arenavirus hemorrhagic fevers.     

Interaction of the influenza A virus polymerase PB2 C-terminal region with importin alpha isoforms provides insights into host adaptation and polymerase assembly

In the adaptation of avian viruses to mammalian hosts, mutations in the viral polymerase, notably in the PB2 subunit, play an important role. A PB2 C-terminal domain rich in putative host adaptation residues has been shown to bind importin α nuclear import receptors. Adaptation has been proposed to involve binding of PB2 to importins of the new host. To date PB2-importin complexes have been characterized semiquantitatively with no precise measurement of binding parameters. To investigate the effects of adaptive mutations on importin interaction and selectivity, surface plasmon resonance was used to compare the binding rate constants and affinities of avian H5N1 and human H3N2 PB2 C-terminal variants with importin isoforms human α 1, 3, 5 and 7, and avian α 1. Using purified proteins eliminates host environment effects and permits measurement of intrinsic affinities and rates of complex formation and dissociation. Two effects were observed: first, adaptive mutations D701N, R702K, and S714R in the nuclear localization signal domain increased 2-4-fold the association rates with avian and human importins; second, measurement of different structural forms of the PB2 C terminus demonstrated that the upstream 627 domain reduced binding affinity, consistent with a steric clash predicted from crystal structures. From these kinetic data, structural analyses, and the data of others, a model is proposed in which an increase in charged surface residues during host adaptation increases the association rate of PB2 to cytoplasmic importins and where the C-terminal 627-nuclear localization signal domain may reorganize upon importin binding, consistent with a role in active polymerase assembly.     

Characterization of the Ligand Binding Functionality of the Extracellular Domain of Activin Receptor Type IIB

The single transmembrane domain serine/threonine kinase activin receptor type IIB (ActRIIB) has been proposed to bind key regulators of skeletal muscle mass development, including the ligands GDF-8 (myostatin) and GDF-11 (BMP-11). Here we provide a detailed kinetic characterization of ActRIIB binding to several low and high affinity ligands using a soluble activin receptor type IIB-Fc chimera (ActRIIB.Fc). We show that both GDF-8 and GDF-11 bind the extracellular domain of ActRIIB with affinities comparable with those of activin A, a known high affinity ActRIIB ligand, whereas BMP-2 and BMP-7 affinities for ActRIIB are at least 100-fold lower. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we demonstrate that ActRIIB binds GDF-11 and activin A in different ways such as, for example, substitutions in ActRIIB Leu⁷⁹ effectively abolish ActRIIB binding to activin A yet not to GDF-11. Native ActRIIB has four isoforms that differ in the length of the C-terminal portion of their extracellular domains. We demonstrate that the C terminus of the ActRIIB extracellular domain is crucial for maintaining biological activity of the ActRIIB.Fc receptor chimera. In addition, we show that glycosylation of ActRIIB is not required for binding to activin A or GDF-11. Together, our findings reveal binding specificity and activity determinants of the ActRIIB receptor that combine to effect specificity in the activation of distinct signaling pathways.     

A high affinity interaction of plasminogen with fibrin is not essential for efficient activation by tissue-type plasminogen activator

Fibrin (Fn) enhances plasminogen (Pg) activation by tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) by serving as a template onto which Pg and tPA assemble. To explore the contribution of the Pg/Fn interaction to Fn cofactor activity, Pg variants were generated and their affinities for Fn were determined using surface plasmon resonance (SPR). Glu-Pg, Lys-Pg (des(1-77)), and Mini-Pg (lacking kringles 1-4) bound Fn with K(d) values of 3.1, 0.21, and 24.5 μm, respectively, whereas Micro-Pg (lacking all kringles) did not bind. The kinetics of activation of the Pg variants by tPA were then examined in the absence or presence of Fn. Whereas Fn had no effect on Micro-Pg activation, the catalytic efficiencies of Glu-Pg, Lys-Pg, and Mini-Pg activation in the presence of Fn were 300- to 600-fold higher than in its absence. The retention of Fn cofactor activity with Mini-Pg, which has low affinity for Fn, suggests that Mini-Pg binds the tPA-Fn complex more tightly than tPA alone. To explore this possibility, SPR was used to examine the interaction of Mini-Pg with Fn in the absence or presence of tPA. There was 50% more Mini-Pg binding to Fn in the presence of tPA than in its absence, suggesting that formation of the tPA-Fn complex exposes a cryptic site that binds Mini-Pg. Thus, our data (a) indicate that high affinity binding of Pg to Fn is not essential for Fn cofactor activity, and (b) suggest that kringle 5 localizes and stabilizes Pg within the tPA-Fn complex and contributes to its efficient activation.     

Protein-disulfide isomerase displaces the cholera toxin A1 subunit from the holotoxin without unfolding the A1 subunit

Protein-disulfide isomerase (PDI) has been proposed to exhibit an unfoldase activity against the catalytic A1 subunit of cholera toxin (CT). Unfolding of the CTA1 subunit is thought to displace it from the CT holotoxin and to prepare it for translocation to the cytosol. To date, the unfoldase activity of PDI has not been demonstrated for any substrate other than CTA1. An alternative explanation for the putative unfoldase activity of PDI has been suggested by recent structural studies demonstrating that CTA1 will unfold spontaneously upon its separation from the holotoxin at physiological temperature. Thus, PDI may simply dislodge CTA1 from the CT holotoxin without unfolding the CTA1 subunit. To evaluate the role of PDI in CT disassembly and CTA1 unfolding, we utilized a real-time assay to monitor the PDI-mediated separation of CTA1 from the CT holotoxin and directly examined the impact of PDI binding on CTA1 structure by isotope-edited Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Our collective data demonstrate that PDI is required for disassembly of the CT holotoxin but does not unfold the CTA1 subunit, thus uncovering a new mechanism for CTA1 dissociation from its holotoxin.     

The Calcium-induced Conformation and Glycosylation of Scavenger-rich Cysteine Repeat (SRCR) Domains of Glycoprotein 340 Influence the High Affinity Interaction with Antigen I/II Homologs

Oral streptococci adhere to tooth-immobilized glycoprotein 340 (GP340) via the surface protein antigen I/II (AgI/II) and its homologs as the first step in pathogenesis. Studying this interaction using recombinant proteins, we observed that calcium increases the conformational stability of the scavenger-rich cysteine repeat (SRCRs) domains of GP340. Our results also show that AgI/II adheres specifically with nanomolar affinity to the calcium-induced SRCR conformation in an immobilized state and not in solution. This interaction is significantly dependent on the O-linked carbohydrates present on the SRCRs. This study also establishes that a single SRCR domain of GP340 contains the two surfaces to which the apical and C-terminal regions of AgI/II noncompetitively adhere. Compared with the single SRCR domain, the three tandem SRCR domains displayed a collective/cooperative increase in their bacterial adherence and aggregation. The previously described SRCRP2 peptide that was shown to aggregate several oral streptococci displayed limited aggregation and also nonspecific adherence compared to SRCR domains. Finally, we show distinct species-specific adherence/aggregation between Streptococcus mutans AgI/II and Streptococcus gordonii SspB in their interaction with the SRCRs. This study concludes that identification of the metal ion and carbohydrate adherence motifs on both SRCRs and AgI/II homologs could lead to the development of anti-adhesive inhibitors that could deter the adherence of pathogenic oral streptococci and thereby prevent the onset of infections.     

Complementary biophysical tools to investigate lipid specificity in the interaction between bioactive molecules and the plasma membrane: A review

Plasma membranes are complex entities common to all living cells. The basic principle of their organization appears very simple, but they are actually of high complexity and represent very dynamic structures. The interactions between bioactive molecules and lipids are important for numerous processes, from drug bioavailability to viral fusion. The cell membrane is a carefully balanced environment and any change inflicted upon its structure by a bioactive molecule must be considered in conjunction with the overall effect that this may have on the function and integrity of the membrane. Conceptually, understanding the molecular mechanisms by which bioactive molecules interact with cell membranes is of fundamental importance.