The principal cotton pests and their economic thresholds in the Kilikien Plain in Southern Turkey

Agrotis ypsilon, Tetranychus cinnabarinus, Bemisia tabaci, Heliothis armigera, Platyedra gossypiella, Earias insulana, Spodoptera littoralis are the major pests of cotton in the Kilikien Plain in Southern Turkey;Aphis gossypii, Spodoptera exigua, Empoasca spp. are occasional pests andThrips tabaci, Nezara viridula, Lygus spp.,Oxycarenus hyalinipennis are of little importance. Pest control is improved if the exact time of appearance and the biology and ecology of these insect pests are known.A. ypsilon can be controlled effectively and economically by seed treatment. Seed sterilization and the destruction of crop residues significantly reduce the offspring and infestation ofP. gossypiella andE. insulana. The number of chemical treatments forT. cinnabarinus, B. tabaci, H. armigera, S. littoralis can be reduced by the application of economic thresholds.     

On the biology of anthocorid bugs (Heteroptera,Anthocoridae), predators of grass aphids in the forest-steppe zone of West Siberia

Four species of the heteropteran family Anthocoridae, Orius niger Wolff., O. majusculus Reut., O. minutus L., and Anthocoris confusus Reut., feeding on grass aphids on grains and bird cherry occur in the foreststeppe zone of Western Siberia. Orius niger and O. majusculus possess the greatest population numbers, with 98% of all the bugs collected in 1987 and 1988 belonging to these species. In 1998–2000, O. niger was predominant (97–100%). Data on the bionomics, seasonal abundance, feeding intensity, and role of anthocorids in the control of aphids are reported. Density of Orius bugs on wheat has been shown to be independent of the preceding culture. Permanent wheat is a preferable habitat of the predatory anthocorids. Mass reproduction of Orius bugs on pea-oat and alfalfa has been recorded.     

Flowering banker plants for the delivery of multiple agroecosystem services

Ecosystem services provided by agricultural ecosystems include natural pest control and pollination, and these are important to ensure crop productivity. This study investigates the use of the banker plant Calendula officinalis L. to provide multiple ecosystem services by increasing the abundance of natural enemies for biological control of tomato pests, providing forage resources to wild bees, and improving crop yield. C. officinalis was selected for this experiment as it is used as a banker plant for Dicyphini (Hemiptera: Miridae) predators. Strips of flowering C. officinalis were established in the field edges of tomato fields and arthropod visitation to C. officinalis strips and tomato was measured. Crop damage from multiple pests of tomato was assessed in fields with C. officinalis strips and control sites. The contribution of pollination to crop yield was assessed through a pollinator exclusion experiment. The inclusion of C. officinalis in tomato fields was associated with increased abundance of Dicyphini, parasitoids, bees and other arthropod groups within these strips. A reduction in the total leaf crop damage from Lepidoptera pests was recorded in fields with C. officinalis strips. Increased fruit set and biomass were recorded in open-pollinated tomato but this was not significantly different between control and C. officinalis fields. Results presented here demonstrate that the inclusion of a companion plant can improve the conservation of beneficial arthropods and the delivery of agroecosystem services but efficacy is likely to be improved with the addition of plants, with different functional traits, and with improved attractiveness to crop pollinators.     

Attraction of Encyrtid wasps (Hymenoptera,Chalcidoidea: Encyrtidae) to a peach orchard agrocenosis in the Republic of Moldova

A total of 26 species from 19 genera of Encyrtidae were recorded in peach orchards in the environs of Chisinau, Moldova. The species affecting the numbers of such peach pests as the Oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta Busck, the peach twig borer Anarsia lineatella Z., the San Jose scale Diaspidiotus perniciosus Comst., and the gooseberry scale Eulecanium coryli L., are listed. The encyrtid parasites of the potential peach pests in Moldova, and also the hyperparasites and parasites of beneficial predatory insects, are considered. Proteincarbohydrate mixture (PCM) and methyl salicylate (MeSA) were most effective for attraction of encyrtid wasps in April and the first half of May, providing 7.0- and 3.2-fold increase in the parasite numbers as compared with the control. In the second decade of May and in June, the increase was 3.6 times on PCM, 1.8 times on MeSA, and 2.6 times on nectariferous plants. From the end of June the efficiency of PCM and MeSA only slightly exceeded the control level while nectariferous plants were most effective, yielding a more than twofold increase in the numbers of encyrtids.     

Predictive thresholds for forecasting the compatibility of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Forficula auricularia</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aphelinus mali</Emphasis> as biological control agents against woolly apple aphid in apple orchards

The woolly apple aphid (WAA), Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is a well-known pest of apple orchards world-wide. Several studies have demonstrated variable control of WAA populations by the European earwig, Forficula auricularia (L.) (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) and the WAA parasitoid Aphelinus mali (Halderman) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). We examine whether a beneficial interaction between F. auricularia and A. mali exists and calculate optimal numbers for each species to maintain WAA infestations below acceptable levels. We demonstrate that trees possessing >14 earwigs per trunk trap per week within the first seven weeks post-blossom contained WAA infestations well below acceptable levels. Where these earwig thresholds were not met, a first generation of A.mali greater than 0.5 wasps per tree was required. If these beneficial insect targets were not met, severe WAA infestations occurred. Our findings suggest that if F. auricularia and A. mali numbers exceed these thresholds chemical intervention may not be required.     

Experience of plant infestation by the omnivorous arthropod <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nesidiocoris tenuis</Emphasis> affects its subsequent responses to prey-infested plant volatiles

Nesidiocoris tenuis, an omnivorous arthropod, infests plants in either the absence or presence of prey arthropods. We studied whether plant-infestation experience of N. tenuis affected its subsequent prey-finding behavior. We used sesame plants and eggplants as food plants for N. tenuis, and common cutworm (CCW) (Spodoptera litura larvae) as prey. We focused on their olfactory response to CCW-infested sesame plants versus CCW-infested eggplants in a Y-tube olfactometer. When N. tenuis adults experienced the infestation of sesame plants for one day, they preferred volatiles from CCW-infested sesame plants to those from CCW-infested eggplants. By contrast, when N. tenuis experienced the infestation of eggplants for one day, they showed no difference in their preference between the two odor sources. When the duration of the infestation of plants was increased to four days, N. tenuis that had experienced sesame plants showed a reversed response: they preferred CCW-infested eggplant volatiles, while those that had infested eggplants again showed no difference in their preference. Next, we studied the olfactory preference of N. tenuis that had previously infested plants with moth (Ephestia kuehniella) eggs. We found that irrespective of plant species and of duration of experience (either one or four days), N. tenuis adults that had previously experienced one plant species showed a significant preference for volatiles from CCW-infested plants of the same species. The blends of the volatiles emitted from CCW-infested sesame plants and those from CCW-infested eggplants were qualitatively different. Possibility to control the olfactory response of N. tenuis to certain prey-infested plant volatiles by adjusting their feeding history is discussed.     

Phytochemical biopesticides: some recent developments

Synthetic pesticides in general, are highly toxic, persistent and their harmful residues contaminate crops, food commodities and pollute soils and groundwater. They adversely affect non-target organisms like pollinators, fish, birds, animals, and their excessive use results in increased resistance in pests. Phytochemical biopesticides on the other hand are less toxic, least persistent, environment friendly and safe to humans and non target organisms. Several phytochemical biopesticides like azadirachtin, nicotine, pyrethrins, rotenone, veratrum, annonins, rocaglamides, isobutylamides etc. have been successfully commercilalized in the past. In this review pesticidal products based on Madhuca indica (Mahua), Sapindus mukorossi (soapnut), Curcuma longa (turmeric), Pongamia glabra (karanja), Eupatorium adenophorum (Crofton weed), Tagetes erecta (marigold), Rheum emodi (Himalayan Rhubarb) and essential oil bearing plants have been discussed. Natural insecticide synergists derived from Anethum sowa and their semisynthetic derivatives have been used to prolong efficacy and counter resistance in insect pests.     

Chromosome number variability in central european members of the<Emphasis Type="Italic">Festuca ovina</Emphasis> and<Emphasis Type="Italic">F. pallens</Emphasis> groups (sect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Festuca</Emphasis>)

Chromosome numbers for 98 plants ofF. pallens, 19 ofF. psammophila, F. belensis andF. vaginata, and 44 ofF. ovina (originating from Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Slovakia and Latvia) are given. In addition to theF. ovina andF. pallens groups, chromosome counts for the following taxa are also reported:F. alpestris (2n=14) reported for the first time in this work,F. amethystina subsp.amethystina (2n=28),F. brevipila (2n=42),F. cinerea (2n=28),F. rupicola subsp.rupicola (2n=42) andF. versicolor subsp.versicolor (2n=14).InF. pallens, two ploidy levels (2n=2x=14+0-1B, 2n=4x=28+0-1B) as well as two natural triploid plants (2n=21+0-1B), were found. In addition to the fourF. pallens types that have been distinguished in Austria, one new tetraploid type (F. pallens “scabrifolia”) from the Czech Republic and Germany is reported and its taxonomy is discussed. The distributions of the Oberösterreich-Niederösterreich and Pannonisches-HügellandF. pallens types outside of Austria are documented.Only the diploid chromosome number (2n=14) was found inF. psammophila andF. vaginata. Chromosome numbers forF. psammophila subsp.muellerstollii andF. belensis (both 2n=14) were determined here for the first time. Two ploidy levels, 2n=14+0-5B corresponding toF. ovina subsp.ovina and 2n=28 corresponding toF. ovina subsp.guestphalica andF. cf.duernsteinensis were confirmed inF. ovina. Differences in chromosome structure (simple and multiple secondary constrictions) betweenF. pallens as opposed toF. psammophila andF. vaginata are discussed. A complete survey of published chromosome counts for Central European species from theF. ovina andF. pallens groups is included.     

Alyssum flowers promote biological control of collard pests

Collard greens Brassica oleracea (L.) are often attacked by various pests including whiteflies, aphids and diamondback moth. Hitherto, the main method used to manage these pests in Brazil has been the application of a limited number of registered insecticides. The search for more sustainable pest management strategies is therefore warranted. In this context, the conservation biological control stands out as an appealing alternative. Conservation biological control is achieved, at least in part, by strip-cultivating and/or conserving flowering plants within the agroecosystem. The present study investigates how alyssum flowers Lobularia maritima (L.) could contribute to the attraction of natural enemies and to the management of collard pests. Two field experiments were conducted in different years. Each experiment consisted of two treatments and three replicates, which were set up in a completely randomized design. The treatments were (1) collards alone, and (2) collards + alyssum. We evaluated weekly the population density of natural enemies and pests on both treatments. The results show that the alyssum flowers attractiveness contributed to increase the abundance of generalist predators during both experiments, which in turn translated into a significant reduction of collards pests, especially aphids. Some of the main predators attracted/harbored by alyssum flowers were spiders, coccinellids, syrphids and Orius sp. Finally, strip intercropping alyssum with collards can be an important strategy to manage brassica pests and cope with the limited availability of insecticides registered for this vegetable crop.     

Trail Chemicals of the Convergens Ladybird Beetle, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hippodamia convergens</Emphasis>, Reduce Feeding and Oviposition by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis> (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) on Citrus Plants

We investigated feeding and oviposition behavior of the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, when exposed to the foraging trails of the convergens ladybird beetle, Hippodamia convergens. Diaphorina citri females feeding on citrus leaves directly exposed to the ladybird adults or treated with trail extract excreted significantly less honeydew droplets than controls. The trail chemicals of the ladybird beetle also decreased oviposition by D. citri females on citrus. In a no-choice experiment, D. citri females preferred to oviposit on control flush and plants than those with ladybird trail-extract treatments. In two-choice experiments, 68.0% of D. citri released into cages exhibited strong selection preference for settling and eventual oviposition on control plants than plants treated with ladybird trail extract. Diaphorina citri eggs were found on all new leaf flush of control plants, whereas only 29.5% of flush on treatment plants were selected for oviposition. The trail chemical deposited by the convergens ladybird beetle elicits repellency of D. citri feeding and oviposition. Therefore, the trail chemicals my contain components that could be useful for behavior-based management of D. citri and HLB disease by reducing psyllid feeding and oviposition.     

Effect of vegetation cover on the abundance and diversity of ladybirds (Coccinellidae) assemblages in a peat bog

Predaceous ladybirds are important natural enemies of many insect pests in terrestrial ecosystems such as peatlands, which are habitats for specialized cold-adapted plants. Ladybird assemblages of pristine peat bogs have not yet been assessed. In total, 15 ladybird species were recorded in peat bog in Belarus by using entomological sweep net. The present study shows low diversity, evenness and species richness of ladybird assemblages. However, a small number of species were present in high numbers. These are Coccinella hieroglyphica, Chilocorus bipustulatus, Coccinulla qutuordecimpustulata and Hippodamia tredecimpunctata. Ladybird abundance was positively related to shrub cover and number of vascular plant species, and negatively related to herb cover. In terms of ladybird diversity, only shrub cover had a significant negative effect.     

Karyo-taxonomic study of the genus<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudolysimachion</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Scrophulariaceae</Emphasis>) in the Czech Republic and Slovakia

Flow cytometry was used to determine ploidy levels in the Czech and Slovak taxa of the genusPseudolysimachion (W.D.J. Koch)Opiz (=Veronica auct. p.p.,Scrophulariaceae). In total, 123 populations from the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine (one locality), Austria (one locality) and Hungary (one locality) were analyzed. InP. maritimum (L.)Á. Löve etD. Löve andP. spicatum (L.)Opiz, two cytotypes were found: diploid (2n=2x=34) and tetraploid (2n=4x=68). In both species the tetraploid cytotype predominated (P. maritimum: 41 tetraploid populations out of 45;P. spicatum: 57 tetraploid populations out of 58). The two cytotypes ofP. maritimum have no taxonomic significance because ploidy level is not obviously correlated with morphology, distribution pattern or ecology. Tetraploid populations ofP. spicatum belong to two morphologically different subspecies, subsp.spicatum and subsp.fischeri Trávní?ek. The diploid cytotype (one population only) should be provisionally classified as a third subspecies ofP. spicatum, which is morphologically similar to the Asian subsp.porphyrianum (Pavlov)Trávní?ek. Only diploid plants (2n=2x=34) ofP. orchideum (Crantz)Wraber were found; all 13 populations that were analyzed belong toP. orchideum s.str. One diploid population sample ofP. spurium subsp.foliosum (Waldst. etKit.)Holub (2n=2x=34) and one tetraploid sample ofP. incanum subsp.pallens (Host)Trávní?ek (2n=4x=68) were also analyzed. In addition, three tetraploid populations of hybrid origin were investigated:P. maritimum ×P. spicatum subsp.spicatum (one population) andP. maritimum ×P. spurium subsp.foliosum (two populations). While hybrid plants ofP. maritimum ×P. spicatum arose from tetraploid parental species, plants ofP. maritimum ×P. spurium probably resulted from a cross between tetraploidP. maritimum and diploidP. spurium. The putative origin and evolutionary importance of polyploids in thePseudolysimachion are discussed.     

Root-shoot ratio in irrigated plants

Relationship between roots and shoots ofPimpinella saxifraga L.,Petroselinum hortense Hoffm.,Lactuca sativa L., andBeta vulgaris subsp.esculenta (Salisbury) Gürke var.altissima Roessig was studied in irrigated and non-irrigated plants. It was found that the irrigation water did not influence distinctly the root-shoot ratio of the experimental plants. From the statical point of view, this relationship could be expressed by the following quantitative ratios for irrigated and non-irrigated plants: 3∶1 forPimpinella saxifraga L., 2∶1 forPetroselinum hortense Hoffm., 9∶1 forLactuca sativa L., and 1∶1 for beetroot. From the dynamic point of view it is possible to state that this ratio changes in the course of individual development. With plants cultivated for their aerial parts, it increased with age, while with plants cultivated for their roots, it decreased with age. The irrigation water produced much greater morphological changes (the shape and the surface area) in the root and shoot system of experimental plants.     

„Kragen” an Atrypiden aus Schillen des Unteren Plattenkalkes (Givet) von Bergisch Gladbach (Rheinisches Schiefergebirge)

In the Lower Plattenkalk of Bergisch Gladbach occur, besides the well known?Hians”-beds, polymictic accumulations of shell material. Together with the valves ofMartinia inflata (Schnur),Uncinulus parallelepipedus (Br.) andIsopoma brachyptyctum (Schnur) are great numbers ofSpinatrypa tubaecostata (Paeck.) andAtrypa prisca gladbachensis n. subsp. In spite of the fact that the host rock was deposited as shell debris, in particular the rhynchonellids and atrypids are easily separated from it in a well preserved state. Atrypa (Desquamatia) prisca gladbachensis n. subsp. is commonly found with its alations intact. This subspecies, which is here described in some detail, fluorisched on a marly ooze bottom. The expanded valves increased the food gathering field, while the alations, surrounding the shell margin almost like a flange, functioned as effective particle filters. Because of this, the free valves floated under wave attack and became fossilized almost undamaged. The brachiopod shells and the organoplastic debris were washed on to discontinuity surfaces which probably had already been lithified by algal growth.     

Hybridization between Arctostaphylos viscida and A. canescens in Oregon

Evidence of natural hybridization betweenArctostaphylos viscida andA. canescens in southwestern Oregon was obtained from morphological studies of field populations. Hybridization occurs where populations ofA. viscida andA. canescens meet in areas where serpentine and nonserpentine soils abut. At these contacts,A. viscida forms large populations only on serpentine andA. canescens only on nonserpentine. Most of the indentifiable hybrids survive on either transitional or nonserpentine soils. The small proportion that are found on serpentine are considered to be backcrosses toA. viscida. The hybrid plants are similar to several putative species maintained in the standard floras, and it is suggested that these no longer be given taxonomic recognition.     

Diet Composition of Indian Burrowing Frog <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sphaerotheca breviceps</Emphasis> (Anura: Dicroglossidae) in Uttarakhand Region of Western Himalaya

A study encompassing the food and feeding habits of Indian burrowing frog Sphaerotheca breviceps was carried out in Srinagar Garhwal (n = 27) and Joshimath region (n = 21) of Uttarakhand, Western Himalaya, India to establish their feeding nature and diet composition. Gut content analysis of S. breviceps revealed acceptance of a wide range of insects and other invertebrates as their food. They feed extensively on the ground and litter-dwelling prey animals. There exists a slight deviation in the diets of S. breviceps in respect to localities perhaps due to variation in prey faunal species. Analysis of the food items ingested revealed that the size of the prey animals was ranged from 3 to 56 mm. The diet composition and index of relative importance confirm its insectivorous type of feeding habit. The study indicates that these anurans are primarily predators of nocturnal terrestrial arthropods and act as an important biological agent for controlling the harmful pests and thus help in ecosystem management.     

Plant and supplementary food sources effect the development of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dicyphus errans</Emphasis> (Hemiptera: Miridae)

Dicyphus errans (Wolff) (Hemiptera: Miridae) is an omnivorous predator of several pests attacking tomato and other vegetable crops. The nymphal development of D. errans was studied in the presence of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) eggs with or without a water source and in the presence of a leaf of cucumber, eggplant or tomato supplemented with variable food types (E. kuehniella eggs, Artemia sp. cysts, pollen or milk powder) or without the provision of any food. Water provision was found to be essential for the completion of nymphal development even when animal food was offered to predators. When nymphs foraged on leaves in the absence of any food type, development was significantly more favoured on eggplant and cucumber than on tomato. E. kuehniella eggs and Artemia sp. cysts enhanced development of D. errans in comparison to milk powder and pollen. Development and female weight were improved when the food types were offered to the nymphs on a plant leaf than when were provided together with only water. This study contributes to understanding the importance of water vs. plant feeding for the development of D. errans and reveals implications for its mass rearing and application in biological control.     

Biological activity and specificity of Miridae-induced plant volatiles

The ability of zoophytophagous predators to produce defensive plant responses due to their phytophagous behavior has been recently demonstrated. In the case of tomatoes, the mirids Nesidiocoris tenuis and Macrolophus pygmaeus are able to attract or repel pests and/or natural enemies in different ways. Nevertheless, the herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) released by the phytophagy of both mirids, which are responsible for these behaviors, are unknown. In this work, the HIPVs produced by the plant feeding of N. tenuis and M. pygmaeus were characterized. In addition, the role of each HIPV in the repellence or attraction of two tomato pests, Bemisia tabaci and Tuta absoluta, and of the natural enemy Encarsia formosa was evaluated. Six green leaf volatiles (GLVs) plus methyl salicylate and octyl acetate clearly stood out as major differential peaks on the chromatogram in a directed analysis. The six GLV and methyl salicylate were repellent for B. tabaci and attractive to E. formosa, whereas they showed no effect on T. absoluta. Octyl acetate, which was significantly present only in the M. pygmaeus-punctured plants, was significantly attractive to T. absoluta, repellent to E. formosa and indifferent to B. tabaci. Unlike the remaining HIPVs, octyl acetate was emitted directly by M. pygmaeus and not by the plant. Our results showed that mirid herbivory could modulate the pest and natural plant enemy locations, since tomato plants release a blend of volatiles in response to this activity. These results could serve as a basis for future development of plant protection.     

An arthropod deterrent attracts specialised bees to their host plants

Many bee species are adapted to just a few specific plants in order to collect pollen (oligolecty). To reproduce successfully, it is important for oligolectic bees to find and recognise the specific host flowers. In this study, we investigated the role of floral volatiles used by an oligolectic bee to recognise its host plants. We compared the attractiveness of natural and synthetic scent samples of host flowers to foraging-naïve and -experienced Hoplitis adunca (Megachilidae) bees that are specialised on Echium and Pontechium (Boraginaceae) plants. The investigations showed that naïve H. adunca females are attracted to 1,4-benzoquinone. During their lifetime, bees learn additional floral cues while foraging on host flowers. In contrast to naïve ones, experienced H. adunca females use, in addition to 1,4-benzoquinone, other compounds to recognise their host plants. 1,4-Benzoquinone is an uncommon floral compound only known from the host plants of H. adunca, and is therefore ideally suited to be used as a plant-specific recognition cue. Several arthropods use this compound to deter insect predators. Therefore, 1,4-benzoquinone as an attractant in Echium flowers may have evolved from a primary function as a defensive compound against insect herbivores.     

Traditional fermented beverages from Mexico as a potential probiotic source

Fermentation is one of the oldest ways of processing food. Some fermented food is produced industrially, but can also be produced in an artisanal way by certain ethnic groups, called traditional fermented foods. In Mexico, there are a variety of traditional fermented beverages which are produced in an artisanal way. They include those made with maize (atole agrio, pozol, and tesgüino), fruit (tepache and colonche), and obtained by plant fermentation (pulque, tuba, and taberna). These beverages have been used since ancient times for religious and medicinal purposes. The medicinal effect may be due to fermented microorganisms. The presence of beneficial microorganisms known as probiotics provides beneficial effects to consumer health, improving the balance of intestinal host, and reducing the risk of gastrointestinal diseases, mainly. Most probiotics belong to the genus Lactobacillus, but Bifidobacterium, Bacillus, and yeast are also found. Therefore, it is important that the microbiological diversity of the beverages is studied and documented. This review includes information on the microbial diversity and probiotic potential of the most important traditional fermented beverages from Mexico.