Occurrence of Three Felids across a Network of Protected Areas in Thailand: Prey,Intraguild, and Habitat Associations

Clouded Leopard, Leopard, and Tiger are threatened felids in Southeast Asia, but little is known about the factors influencing their distributions. Using logistic regression, we assessed how habitat variables, prey detection patterns, and presence of intraguild predators affect the occurrence of these felids across 13 protected areas within Thailand. Our analysis is based on data from 1108 camera‐trap locations (47,613 trap‐nights). Clouded Leopard and Leopard are associated with habitat where Red Muntjac and Eurasian Wild Pig were most likely to be present. Tiger are associated with habitat with a higher likelihood for the presence of Gaur, Eurasian Wild Pig, and Sambar. Clouded Leopard and Tiger were both weakly associated with areas with mature evergreen forest. Besides availability of prey, associations with potential competitors also appear to influence the distribution of these felids, although the strength of these effects requires further investigation. Occurrence rates for Clouded Leopard were no different in protected areas with Leopard versus without Leopards. Leopard had similar occurrence rates regardless of the presence of Tiger, but Leopards were less likely to be detected at the same camera‐trap points with the larger felid. Our results suggest that the two most commonly photographed prey species in the study areas serve as key prey species, Eurasian Wild Pig for all three carnivores and Red Muntjac for Leopard and Clouded Leopard.     

Musculoskeletal anatomy of the Eurasian lynx,Lynx lynx (Carnivora: Felidae) forelimb: Adaptations to capture large prey?

Mammalian carnivores adhere to two different feeding strategies relative to their body masses. Large carnivores prey on animals that are the same size or larger than themselves, whereas small carnivores prey on smaller vertebrates and invertebrates. The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) falls in between these two categories. Lynx descend from larger forms that were probably large prey specialists, but during the Pleistocene became predators of small prey. The modern Eurasian lynx may be an evolutionary reversal toward specializing in large prey again. We hypothesized that the musculoskeletal anatomy of lynx should show traits for catching large prey. To test our hypothesis, we dissected the forelimb muscles of six Eurasian lynx individuals and compared our findings to results published for other felids. We measured the bones and compared their dimensions to the published material. Our material displayed a well‐developed pectoral girdle musculature with some uniquely extensive muscle attachments. The upper arm musculature resembled that of the pantherine felids and probably the extinct sabertooths, and also the muscles responsible for supination and pronation were similar to those in large cats. The muscles controlling the pollex were well‐developed. However, skeletal indices were similar to those of small prey predators. Our findings show that lynx possess the topographic pattern of muscle origin and insertion like in large felids. J. Morphol. 277:753–765, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Traditional Versus Multivariate Methods for Identifying Jaguar,Puma, and Large Canid Tracks

ABSTRACT The jaguar (Panthera onca) and puma (Puma concolor) are the largest felids of the American Continent and live in sympatry along most of their distribution. Their tracks are frequently used for research and management purposes, but tracks are difficult to distinguish from each other and can be confused with those of big canids. We used tracks from pumas, jaguars, large dogs, and maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) to evaluate traditional qualitative and quantitative identification methods and to elaborate multivariate methods to differentiate big canids versus big felids and puma versus jaguar tracks (n = 167 tracks from 18 zoos). We tested accuracy of qualitative classification through an identification exercise with field-experienced volunteers. Qualitative methods were useful but there was high variability in accuracy of track identification. Most of the traditional quantitative methods showed an elevated percentage of misclassified tracks (≥20%). We used stepwise discriminant function analysis to develop 3 discriminant models: 1 for big canid versus big felid track identification and 2 alternative models for jaguar versus puma track differentiation using 1) best discriminant variables, and 2) size-independent variables. These models had high classification performance, with <10% of error in the validation procedures. We used simpler discriminant models in the elaboration of identification keys to facilitate track classification process. We developed an accurate method for track identification, capable of distinguishing between big felids (puma and jaguar) and large canids (dog and maned wolf) tracks and between jaguar and puma tracks. Application of our method will allow a more reliable use of tracks in puma and jaguar research and it will help managers using tracks as indicators of these felids' presence for conservation or management purposes.     

Restoration of the superficial facial musculature in nimravids

The size, shape and position of the mouth and sensory features such as the nose, eyes and ears in the nimravid barbourofelins are reconstructed. The earliest barbourofelin studied, Sansanosmilus , is the most similar to both pantherine and nonpantherine felids in sensory structure morphology. Through time, the species of the barbourofelin lineage diverge from felids with regard to facial features. Evolutionary trends include expansion of the nasal region, a more lateral orientation of the eyes and lowered position for the ears. Increased width and shortening of the muzzle accommodates the large oral opening required by the large gape of Barboumfelis , culminating in B. fricki with eyes oriented laterally enough to reduce stereoscopic vision. The ear position in this species is also significantly lower than in the earlier barbourofelins or felids. This may reflect an anatomic compromise between sensory structure position and changes in relative size, shape and position of other skull features. These changes correlate with increased canine tooth length and increased gape, exemplified by Barboumfelis fricki. Cranial soft tissue structures are restored through scars of attachment on the fossil bones, and the proportions of these features to one another determined. New observations provide criteria for reconstructing soft tissue anatomy in extinct animals.     

Comparative functional morphology of mandibular forward movement during mastication of two murid rodents,Apodemus speciosus (Murinae) and Clethrionomys rufocanus (Arvicolinae)

The anatomy of the masticatory apparatus, the direction in which masticatory muscles act during mastication, and jaw muscle forces as estimated by muscle dry weight are compared between two murid rodents, the Japanese field mouse (Apodemus speciosus; subfamily Murinae) and the gray red-backed vole (Clethrionomys rufocanus; subfamily Arvicolinae). The occlusal forces exerted by the deep masseter and the anterior temporalis are large in C. rufocanus. Furthermore, in this species, the angle between the sagittal plane and the occlusal plane of the cheek teeth is larger than in A. speciosus. Therefore, a relatively large occlusal force can be generated in C. rufocanus. The estimated line of action of the anterior temporalis differs markedly between these two species. The functional significance of this difference is discussed relative to the adaptive dental characteristics for food processing, the forces required to masticate different types of food, and the forces that control mandibular forward movement. J Morphol 231:131–141, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Diet and prey selection of clouded leopards and tigers in Laos

In Southeast Asia, conservation of ‘Vulnerable’ clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa) and ‘Endangered’ tigers (Panthera tigris) might depend on the management of their preferred prey because large felid populations are limited by the availability of suitable prey. However, the diet of clouded leopards has never been determined, so the preferred prey of this felid remains unknown. The diet of tigers in the region has been studied only from one protected‐area complex in western Thailand, but prey preferences were not determined. To better understand the primary and preferred prey of threatened felids, we used DNA‐confirmed scats and prey surveys to determine the diet and prey selection of clouded leopards and tigers in a hilly evergreen forest in northern Laos. For clouded leopards, the primary prey was wild pig (Sus scrofa; 33% biomass consumed), followed by greater hog badger (Arctonyx collaris; 28%), small rodents (15%), and mainland serow (Capricornis sumatraensis; 13%; hereafter, serow). For tigers, the primary prey was wild pig (44%), followed by serow (18%), sambar (Rusa unicolor; 12%), and Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus; 10%). Compared to availability, serow was positively selected by both clouded leopards (D = 0.69) and tigers (0.61), whereas all other ungulate species were consumed in proportion to the availability or avoided. Our results indicate that clouded leopards are generalist predators with a wide prey spectrum. Nonetheless, mid‐sized ungulates (50–150 kg) comprised nearly half of their diet, and were the preferred prey, supporting a previous hypothesis that the enlarged gape and elongated canines of clouded leopards are adaptations for killing large prey. Because serow was the only ungulate preferred by both felids, we recommend that serow populations be monitored and managed to help conservation efforts for clouded leopards and tigers, at least in hilly evergreen forests of Southeast Asia.     

Comparative bite forces and canine bending strength in feline and sabretooth felids: implications for predatory ecology

The sabretooth felids were widespread across much of the world in the Late Tertiary, and appear to have been an important group of large predators. Owing to the substantially different skull morphology of derived sabretooths compared with extant felids, there has been considerable debate over the killing mode, bite forces, and bending strength of the large upper canines, and over the implications of these characteristics on feeding ecology. Debates have, however, usually been based on indirect comparisons of force vectors. In this paper, I provide assessments of the estimated force output from the jaw adductor muscles, based on estimates of muscle cross-sectional areas and force vectors, along with canine bending strengths, in a variety of sabretooth felids, in comparison with extant felids. In general, sabretoothed felids had moderately powerful bites, albeit with less jaw adductor power for their body sizes compared with extant felids, sometimes markedly so. Less derived sabrecats appear to have had proportionally higher bite forces than derived forms. The length of the upper canines seemingly compromised their bending strength at any given body size, and again this was most marked in derived forms. However, compared with estimated jaw adductor forces, the canines of sabrecats appear, if anything, to have been stronger than those of extant conical-toothed felids. It has previously been suggested that large sabretoothed felids hunted large prey with a canine shearing bite, powered in part by the jaw adductors and in part by the muscles of the upper neck–occipital region. The present results of canine bending strengths versus the predicted bite force from the jaw adductors supports this suggestion.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 151 , 423–437.     

Feeding ecology and morphology of the upper canines in bears (carnivora: Ursidae)

The morphology and mechanical strength of the upper canines in all eight extant species of ursids is analyzed, and the findings are discussed in relation to feeding ecology. Ursids have proportionally smaller canines than other large carnivores with a specialized feeding ecology, such as large felids, and the upper canine morphology is both canid‐like and felid‐like. The giant panda is the most divergent species, and its short, blunt, and cone‐like canines appear well adapted for tearing into bamboo. The almost equally herbivorous spectacled bear has a less derived canine morphology. The large canines of the sun bear are divergent from other ursine ursids, and may be an adaptation for tearing open tree trunks in search of insects. Discriminant Analysis is successful in separating ursid species on the basis of canine morphology, but the canines of ursine ursids, and also of the spectacled bear, show greater resemblance among the species than the marked differences in feeding ecology would suggest. This could be in part due to a short evolutionary history, and in part due to canines not having been subjected to much evolutionary selection as has been the case among other large carnivores, such as large felids. Ursids are probably evolutionarily and ecologically successful due to physical size and strength rather than a derived craniodental anatomy. J. Morphol., 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Patterns of sexual dimorphism in the Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) and implications for sex differentiation

Extant felids show a high degree of inter-sexual dimorphism, meaning significant size differences between males and females. Such a differentiation may have various ecological, behavioural and evolutionary implications, at both species and subspecies levels. We have investigated the sexual size differences in one of the most dimorphic felids, i.e. the Leopard (Panthera pardus), based on 63 craniometric and 55 morphometric samples from Iran which belong to the subspecies Persian Leopard (P. p. saxicolor). In order to explore patterns of sexual dimorphism, multivariate statistical analysis on 24 skull variables as well as univariate approaches for two body measurements were applied. We found significant inter-sexual differences in skull size whereas it was not meaningful after removing the effect of size to address skull shape. Moreover, inter-sexual differentiation was also remarkable when comparing morphometric body measurements in adults, showing that the males possess a larger head mass and longer body, but sub-adults did not show any remarkable differentiation between sexes. A combination of craniometric and morphological features is proposed for sex differentiation in Leopards.     

Craniodental indicators of prey size preference in the Felidae

In the present study, we used linear morphometrics of the crania, mandible and dentition to explore the association between craniodental shape and prey size among 35 species of living felids. To accomplish this, felids were divided into three prey-size groups: (1) large prey specialists; (2) small prey specialists; and (3) mixed prey feeders. From these linear measurements, large prey specialist felids can be distinguished from small and mixed prey feeders by their relatively robust canines and incisors and relatively wide muzzles. These cranial characters are advantageous when dispatching large prey, due to the stranglehold that cats employ during this activity. Robust canines resist the bending and torsional forces applied by struggling prey and a wider muzzle helps to stabilize grip and distribute bite forces more evenly during the killing bite. Small prey specialists had smaller canines, narrower muzzles and slightly longer jaws for a speed advantage when catching small, quick prey. Mixed prey feeders were intermediate between large and small prey specialists, indicating they are adapted to killing both sizes of prey. Given the success of this ecomorphological analysis of living felids that specialize on different prey sizes, we look forward to applying this same approach to extinct species.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 96 , 784–799.     

同域栖息的美洲虎和美洲狮存在竞争吗?

美洲虎( Panthera onca)和美洲狮( Puma concolor)是中美洲和南美洲大部区域共存的大型猫科动物,其共存理论得到研究验证。本文作者回顾了有关文献,认为同域分布的美洲虎和美洲狮存在生境和猎物分化,提出热带美洲狮具有较小体型以利用较小的猎物并减少与美洲虎竞争的假设。研究支持美洲虎和美洲狮的空间相互回避概念,但两者猎物之间分化的研究结果不相吻合。尽管如此,文献认为新热带界美洲狮体型较小只是反映了在进化过程中偏于利用较小猎物的事实,而与美洲虎的竞争无关。人类的影响会引起美洲虎和美洲狮的共存。在新热带界环境中,美洲虎由于依赖特定猎物而较大程度地受到人类引起的猎物种群下降之影响,但美洲狮由于可以偏向利用小型猎物或猎物多样化而得到补偿,从而能更好地适应人类的影响。     

Noninvasive individual and species identification of jaguars (Panthera onca), pumas (Puma concolor) and ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) in Belize,Central America using cross‐species microsatellites and faecal DNA

There is a great need to develop efficient, noninvasive genetic sampling methods to study wild populations of multiple, co‐occurring, threatened felids. This is especially important for molecular scatology studies occurring in challenging tropical environments where DNA degrades quickly and the quality of faecal samples varies greatly. We optimized 14 polymorphic microsatellite loci for jaguars (Panthera onca), pumas (Puma concolor) and ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) and assessed their utility for cross‐species amplification. Additionally, we tested their reliability for species and individual identification using DNA from faeces of wild felids detected by a scat detector dog across Belize in Central America. All microsatellite loci were successfully amplified in the three target species, were polymorphic with average expected heterozygosities of H_E = 0.60 ± 0.18 (SD) for jaguars, H_E = 0.65 ± 0.21 (SD) for pumas and H_E = 0.70 ± 0.13 (SD) for ocelots and had an overall PCR amplification success of 61%. We used this nuclear DNA primer set to successfully identify species and individuals from 49% of 1053 field‐collected scat samples. This set of optimized microsatellite multiplexes represents a powerful tool for future efforts to conduct noninvasive studies on multiple, wild Neotropical felids.     

Forelimb indicators of prey‐size preference in the Felidae

The forelimbs, along with the crania, are an essential part of the prey‐killing apparatus in cats. Linear morphometrics of the forelimbs were used to determine the morphological differences between felids that specialize on large prey, small prey, or mixed prey. We also compared the scaling of felid forelimbs to those of canids to test whether prey capture strategies affect forelimb scaling. Results suggest that large prey specialists have relatively robust forelimbs when compared with smaller prey specialists. This includes relatively more robust humeri and radii, relatively larger distal ends of the humerus, and relatively larger articular areas of the humerus and radius. Large prey specialists also had relatively longer olecranon processes of the ulna and wider proximal paws. These characters are all important for subduing large prey while the cat positions itself for the killing bite. Small prey specialists have relatively longer distal limb elements for swift prey capture, and mixed prey specialists had intermediate values with relatively more robust metacarpals. Arboreal felids also had more robust limbs. They had relatively longer proximal phalanges for better grip while climbing, and a relatively short brachial index (radius to humerus ratio). Additionally, we found that felids and canids differ in forelimb scaling, which emphasizes the dual use of forelimbs for locomotion and prey capture in felids. This morphometric technique worked well to separate prey‐size preference in felids, but did not work as well to separate locomotor groups, as scansorial and terrestrial felids were not clearly distinguished. J. Morphol. 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Topcats and underdogs: intraguild interactions among three apex carnivores across Asia's forestscapes

Intraguild interactions among carnivores have long held the fascination of ecologists. Ranging from competition to facilitation and coexistence, these interactions and their complex interplay influence everything from species persistence to ecosystem functioning. Yet, the patterns and pathways of such interactions are far from understood in tropical forest systems, particularly across countries in the Global South. Here, we examined the determinants and consequences of competitive interactions between dholes Cuon alpinus and the two large felids (leopards Panthera pardus and tigers Panthera tigris) with which they most commonly co-occur across Asia. Using a combination of traditional and novel data sources (N = 118), we integrate information from spatial, temporal, and dietary niche dimensions. These three species have faced catastrophic declines in their extent of co-occurrence over the past century; most of their source populations are now confined to Protected Areas. Analysis of dyadic interactions between species pairs showed a clear social hierarchy. Tigers were dominant over dholes, although pack strength in dholes helped ameliorate some of these effects; leopards were subordinate to dholes. Population-level spatio-temporal interactions assessed at 25 locations across Asia did not show a clear pattern of overlap or avoidance between species pairs. Diet-profile assessments indicated that wild ungulate biomass consumption by tigers was highest, while leopards consumed more primate and livestock prey as compared to their co-predators. In terms of prey offtake (ratio of wild prey biomass consumed to biomass available), the three species together harvested 0.4–30.2% of available prey, with the highest offtake recorded from the location where the carnivores reach very high densities. When re-examined in the context of prey availability and offtake, locations with low wild prey availability showed spatial avoidance and temporal overlap among the carnivore pairs, and locations with high wild prey availability showed spatial overlap and temporal segregation. Based on these observations, we make predictions for 40 Protected Areas in India where temporally synchronous estimates of predator and prey densities are available. We expect that low prey availability will lead to higher competition, and in extreme cases, to the complete exclusion of one or more species. In Protected Areas with high prey availability, we expect intraguild coexistence and conspecific competition among carnivores, with spill-over to forest-edge habitats and subsequent prey-switching to livestock. We stress that dhole–leopard–tiger co-occurrence across their range is facilitated through an intricate yet fragile balance between prey availability, and intraguild and conspecific competition. Data gaps and limitations notwithstanding, our study shows how insights from fundamental ecology can be of immense utility for applied aspects like large predator conservation and management of human–carnivore interactions. Our findings also highlight potential avenues for future research on tropical carnivores that can broaden current understanding of intraguild competition in forest systems of Asia and beyond.     

Implications of the mastoid anatomy of larger extant felids for the evolution and predatory behaviour of sabretoothed cats (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae)

Muscle attachments in the mastoid region of the skull of extant felids are studied through dissection of two adult tigers Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758) Pocock, 1930, a lion Panthera leo (Linnaeus, 1758) Pocock, 1930 and a puma Puma concolor (Linnaeus, 1771) Jardine, 1834, providing for the first time an adequate reference for the study of the evolution of that region in sabretoothed felids. Our study supports the inference by W. Akersten that the main muscles inserting in the mastoid process in sabretooths were those originating in the atlas, rather than those from the posterior neck, sternum and forelimb. Those inferences were based on the anatomy of the giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca (David, 1869) Milne-Edwards, 1870, raising uncertainties about homology, which were founded, as revealed by our results. The mastoid muscle insertions in extant felids differ in important details from those described for Ailuropoda , but agree with those described for domestic cats, hyenas and dogs. The large, antero-ventrally projected mastoid process of pantherines allows a moderate implication of the m. obliquus capitis anterior in head-flexion. This contradicts the widespread notion that the function of this muscle in carnivores is to extend the atlanto-cranial joint and to flex it laterally, but supports previous inferences about the head-flexing function of atlanto-mastoid muscles in machairodontines. Sabretooth mastoid morphology implies larger and longer-fibred atlanto-mastoid muscles than in pantherines, and that most of their fibres ran inferior to the axis of rotation of the atlanto-occipital joint, emphasizing head-flexing action.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 140 , 207–221.     

Function of the digastric muscle in carnivores

The general form and adaptation of the digastric muscle in carnivores are reviewed and discussed. The digastric muscle differs from the general plan in certain aquatic carnivores and felids. In the pertinent aquatic species the muscle is enlarged. The observations suggest that the enlargement is an adaptation for rapidly opening the jaws against the resistance of water. In felids, the insertion of the muscle is much farther forward than in most other carnivores. The observations suggest that the development of short jaws in felids necessitated a compensatory anterior relocation of the digastric insertion in order to preserve the ability to achieve a large gape.     

Learning from the past to prepare for the future: felids face continued threat from declining prey

Many contemporary species of large‐felids (≥ 15 kg) feed upon prey that are endangered, raising concern that prey population declines (defaunation) will further threaten felids. We assess the threat that defaunation presents by investigating a late Quaternary (LQ), ‘present‐natural’ counterfactual scenario. Our present‐natural counterfactual is based on predicted ranges of mammals today in the absence of any impacts of modern humans Homo sapiens through time. Data from our present‐natural counterfactual are used to understand firstly how megafauna extinction has impacted felid communities to date and secondly to quantify the threat to large‐felid communities posed by further declines in prey richness in the future. Our purpose is to identify imminent risks to biodiversity conservation and their cascading consequences and, specifically, to indicate the importance of preserving prey diversity. We pursue two lines of enquiry; first, we test whether the loss of prey species richness is a potential cause of large‐felid extinction and range loss. Second, we explore what can be learnt from the large‐scale large‐mammal LQ losses, particularly in the Americas and Europe, to assess the threat any further decline in prey species presents to large‐felids today, particularly in Africa and Asia. Large‐felid species richness was considerably greater under our present‐natural counterfactual scenario compared to the current reality. In total, 86% of cells recorded at least one additional felid species in our present‐natural counterfactual, and up to 4–5 more large‐felid species in 10% of the cells. A significant positive correlation was recorded between the number of prey species lost and the number of large‐felid species lost from a cell. Extant felids most at risk include lion and Sunda clouded leopard, as well as leopard and cheetah in parts of their range. Our results draw attention to the continuation of a trend of megafauna decline that began with the emergence of hominins in the Pleistocene.     

Comparative Scaling of Humeral Cross-Sections of Felids and Canids Using Radiographic Images

The cortical thickness of long bones can be an effective indicator of locomotor modes and other stresses encountered by bone. Felids and canids are two carnivoran families that have similar levels of phylogenetic diversity and overlap in body size, but differ in their locomotor habits. Many canids and felids are cursorial, but felids also climb more frequently than canids. Felids also display a secondary use for their forelimbs not observed in any canids: they use their forelimbs to grasp and subdue prey. Large felids use their forelimbs much more extensively to subdue prey than do large canids and, therefore, should have proportionately greater forces applied to their forelimbs. This study uses a non-invasive radiographic approach to examine the differences in cortical thickness in the humerus between the Felidae and Canidae, as well as between size groups within these two families. Results show few significant differences between the two families, with a slight trend toward more positive allometry in the felids. Overall, radiographic measurements were found to be better predictors of body mass than either prey killing behavior or locomotor mode in these two carnivoran families. One canid that demonstrated exceptionally high cortical area was the bush dog, Speothos venaticus. The rarely observed bush dog has been postulated to swim and dig regularly, and it may be that the thickened cortical bone reflects these behaviors.     

Dangerous animals in captivity: Ex situ tiger conflict and implications for private ownership of exotic animals

The risks associated with tiger attacks on people in the wild are well documented. There may currently be more tigers in captivity than in the wild, but relatively little is known about the risks of injury or death associated with owning and managing captive tigers and other large carnivores. The purpose of this study was to conduct a global assessment of attacks by captive tigers on people, with particular emphasis on cases in the United States. Our analysis of 30 international media sources and additional documents uncovered 59 unique incidents in 1998–2001 in which people were reportedly injured or killed by captive tigers. In the United States, seven people were reportedly killed and at least 27 were injured—a rate of 1.75 fatal attacks and at least nine nonfatal attacks per year. All but one fatal attack in the United States occurred in situations where tigers were privately owned or held in private facilities. Forty‐two percent of the victims were classified as visitors, and almost one‐quarter of the victims were under the age of 20. These results suggest that the victims underestimated the dangers posed by direct contact with these animals. In this work we review current legislation regarding captive ownership of tigers and other large exotic animals, and contradict claims by those who support private ownership of tigers and other large felids that the risks associated with owning and viewing these animals are insignificant. We conclude that the growing number of people who own tigers and other large exotic animals is cause for concern because of the danger to the animals, the handlers, and the public. The problem of private ownership of dangerous exotic animals has broad implications for tiger and large‐carnivore conservation, public health, and animal welfare. We support the regulation of private ownership of dangerous exotic animals, and encourage scientific analysis of this contentious issue. Zoo Biol 22:573–586, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Osteology and ecology of Megantereon cultridens SE311 (Mammalia; Felidae; Machairodontinae), a sabrecat from the Late Pliocene – Early Pleistocene of Senéze, France

Megantereon cultridens was a derived, Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene sabrecat, and although fossils of animals referred to the genus and species have been found at several locations throughout Eurasia, most are fragmentary. However, the specimen SE311 from Senéze in France represents an almost complete and well-preserved skeleton, and this is only known from very few other sabrecats, thus providing a rare glimpse into the full anatomy of an unusual and derived sabrecat. In this monograph, we provide a complete overview of the anatomy of Megantereon cultridens SE311, and compare it with extant large felids, and the few other derived sabrecats from which ample fossil material is known, although most frequently representing several specimens. SE311 was a large specimen of M. cultridens and would have had a body mass of 100–110 kg and a head–body length or around 160 cm, which is similar to a small lioness or large male jaguar. Megantereon sp. were sexually dimorphic, and the size of SE311 suggests that it was a male. As with several other derived sabrecats, it was powerfully built, and had particularly robust forequarters with very well-developed muscle attachment sites, indicating a powerful forelimb and shoulder musculature. The neck was proportionally much longer than in extant felids, and the thoracic and particularly lumbar region was proportionally shorter, mimicking the condition in other derived sabrecats from which large parts of the vertebral column is known. Megantereon probably lived in open-forest environments and preyed on cervids, which were dispatched with a shearing bite from the hypertrophied and blade-like upper canines to the throat of the prey, while the prey was held immobile with the massive forelimbs, thus minimizing the risk of damage to the fangs.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 151 , 833–884.