蛋白质棕榈酰化修饰及其研究方法

蛋白质棕榈酰化是蛋白质翻译后脂质共价修饰的一种重要形式,对象主要是胞质蛋白质,对蛋白质功能产生多重影响。近年来由于相关新技术引入,对蛋白质棕榈酰化主要修饰酶及其对靶蛋白功能调节方面的研究已渐成为新热点。本文主要对近几年来蛋白质棕榈酰化修饰及其研究方法作了综述。     

棕榈酰化蛋白及蛋白质的棕榈酰化研究进展

蛋白质S-棕榈酰化是最常见的具有16碳脂肪酸棕榈酸酯的脂质修饰形式,调节蛋白质的运输和功能。文中主要概括从植物到哺乳动物中发现的具有棕榈酰基转移酶活性的保守DHHC蛋白家族,并介绍蛋白质棕榈酰化的研究方法,及检测棕榈酰化蛋白质的位点预测方法(CSS-Palm、NBA-Palm、TermiNator2)、放射性标记法(用3H棕榈酸酯或125I-IC16棕榈酸酯)和非放射性标记法(化学标记和质谱法),总结蛋白棕榈酰化的抑制技术以及抑制剂类型(包括2-溴棕榈酸酯、浅蓝菌素和衣霉素)。同时概括蛋白棕榈酰化在植物胁迫中的响应,展望其在植物抗逆中的应用前景。     

鹅掌楸DHHC型锌指蛋白家族基因的克隆及表达分析

棕榈酰化修饰是一种最普遍且唯一可逆的翻译后脂质修饰方式,赋予蛋白质多样化的生理功能。DHHC( Asp-His-His-Cys)蛋白家族是一类与棕榈酰化修饰相关的蛋白,多数DHHC蛋白家族成员具有蛋白质酰基转移酶( protein S-acyltransferase,PAT)活性。该研究以鹅掌楸叶芽为材料,采用RT-PCR和RACE技术,克隆获得了3个鹅掌楸DHHC蛋白家族基因cDNA全长,命名为LcPAT7、LcPAT22、LcPAT23。序列分析结果表明：LcPAT7、LcPAT22、LcPAT23基因全长分别为1933、2592、2217 bp,各包含1332、1839、1662 bp的开放阅读框( Open Reading Frame,ORF),编码433、612、533个氨基酸,预测蛋白分子量分别为40.04、67.3、60.57 kDa,理论等电点为9.15、9.03、7.29。3个基因编码的蛋白均有4个跨膜区,并且都在跨膜域( transmembrane domain, TM) TM2和 TM3之间存在一个 DHHC 蛋白家族典型的 DHHC-CRD 结构域。同源性分析表明：鹅掌楸LcPAT7、LcPAT22、LcPAT23编码的氨基酸序列与其他植物中预测的PAT具有较高的相似性。利用荧光定量PCR技术检测3个基因在鹅掌楸不同组织中的表达特性,发现3个基因在不同组织中均有表达,但表达量具有明显区别。同一家族基因表达模式的变化表明其功能非冗余。该研究结果将为鹅掌楸生长发育与形态建成,以及逆境响应信号传导等相关基因的调控研究提供了参考。     

棕榈酰化修饰对G蛋白偶联受体功能的调节作用

G蛋白偶联受体(G-protein-coupled receptors,GPCRs)作为跨膜蛋白,其结构和功能同时受相互作用的蛋白质和脂质分子调控.S-棕榈酰化(S-palmitoylation)能够影响GPCRs与信号蛋白及膜脂分子的相互作用,在GPCRs相关的多项生理进程中发挥重要调节作用.棕榈酸与GPCRs的半胱氨酸间形成不稳定的硫酯键,其修饰动力学过程受棕榈酰转移酶(protein acly transferases,PATs)与硫酯酶(thioesterases)之间的可逆性双重调控,与受体活性及生理状态密切相关.棕榈酰化修饰多发生在GPCRs的C末端,通过棕榈酸侧链插入到质膜内侧而形成第4和/或第5个胞内环,从而影响GPCRs的构象,促进其正确折叠与成熟,并对GPCRs胞内转运、分选、下游信号转导、失敏、内化、寡聚化等活动产生影响.此外,棕榈酰化还与磷酸化、泛素化及亚硝基化等多种翻译后修饰机制相互作用,共同参与调节GPCRs的功能.GPCRs的棕榈酰化修饰酶学机制以及GPCRs蛋白复合体棕榈酰化修饰胞内动力学过程将是未来的研究热点.     

蛋白质棕榈酰化及其与离子通道关系的研究进展

蛋白质棕榈酰化(palmitoylation)是调节蛋白定位、稳定和功能的重要机制,这一过程通常受棕榈酰基转移酶的调控,编码这些酶的基因称为含锌指DHHC(zDHHC)。随着研究方法的深入,棕榈酰化修饰在多种离子通道生理功能方面发挥重要的调节作用,为深入了解离子通道结构和功能带来新的见解。本文主要就棕榈酰化修饰过程及其在常见离子通道中的研究进展做一综述。     

蛋白质棕榈酰化对离子型谷氨酸受体运输的调节作用

棕榈酰化是一种可逆的翻译后修饰,其对蛋白质的定位和功能具有重要的调节意义.离子型谷氨酸受体有N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸(NMDA)受体、α-氨基羟甲基恶唑丙酸(AMPA)受体和人海藻酸受体.近期研究发现,它们的棕榈酰化修饰对其膜表面分布和内化均具有重要的意义.其中NMDA受体在其C末端有2个不同的棕榈酰化位点.1个位于C末端近膜区(CysclusterⅠ),它的棕榈酰化可以增高酪氨酸的磷酸化水平,增加受体膜表面分布,影响神经元中NMDA受体的组构性内化;另1个位于C末端中部(CysclusterⅡ),它受到蛋白质酰基转移酶GODZ的调节,使得受体在高尔基体大量积聚,从而影响受体的膜表面分布.与NMDA受体相似,AMPA受体也存在2个棕榈酰化位点.1个位于在第2跨膜域,受蛋白质酰基转移酶GODZ的调节,能导致AMPA受体在高尔基体的积聚.另1个位点在受体C末端近膜区,它的棕榈酰化能降低AMPA受体和4.1N蛋白的相互作用,并调节受体的内化.这两种离子型谷氨酸受体在棕榈酰化机制上虽然存在差异,但均对受体的运输、膜表面分布和内化具有十分重要的作用.     

蛋白质赖氨酸残基的琥珀酰化修饰

蛋白质的琥珀酰化修饰是一种普遍存在于真核生物和原核生物中的翻译后修饰。修饰的蛋白质遍及细胞膜、细胞质基质、各种细胞器及细胞核等细胞的各个部分,它们参与了细胞内包括糖代谢、三羧酸循环和脂肪酸代谢等各种代谢反应,与生命体的活动息息相关。本文综述了琥珀酰化蛋白质活性变化、修饰位点周围氨基酸的特异性及空间结构的分析、亚细胞分布情况、琥珀酰化与乙酰化之间的相互作用及碳源和生长阶段对蛋白质琥珀酰化水平的影响等内容,以期为后续蛋白质的琥珀酰化科研提供一定的参考。     

细菌蛋白质翻译后脂质化修饰

蛋白质翻译后修饰(protein translational modifications,PTMs)在正常细胞发挥生物学功能和疾病发生发展过程中起着重要作用。脂质化是指蛋白质在核糖体合成后与疏水脂质分子进行共价结合的一种蛋白质翻译后修饰。近年来,在细菌中陆续报道了许多新的脂质化蛋白修饰方式。本文主要综述了细菌蛋白质翻译后脂质化修饰的三种代表类型:棕榈酰化、肉豆蔻酰化和异戊二烯化,以及细菌脂质化修饰的相关生物学功能,旨在为今后抗菌药物的研发拓宽思路。     

蛋白质的豆蔻酰化

蛋白质的豆蔻酰化许正平李伯良（浙江大学生物科学与技术系,杭州３１００２７）（中国科学院上海生物化学研究所,上海２０００３１）蛋白质豆蔻酰化是指真核细胞中豆蔻酰基在豆蔻酰ＣｏＡ：蛋白质Ｎ端豆蔻酰转移酶（ＭｙｒｉｓｔｏｙｌＣｏＡ：ｐｒｏｔｅｉｎＮｍｙｒ...     

Regulation of EGFR signalling by palmitoylation and its role in tumorigenesis

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is an essential driver of oncogenic signalling, and EGFR inhibitors are some of the earliest examples of successful targeted therapies in multiple types of cancer. The tractability of EGFR as a therapeutic target is overshadowed by the inevitable drug resistance that develops. Overcoming resistance mechanisms requires a deeper understanding of EGFR regulation in cancer cells. In this review, we discuss our recent discovery that the palmitoyltransferase DHHC20 palmitoylates EGFR on the C-terminal domain and plays a critical role in signal regulation during oncogenesis. Inhibiting DHHC20 expression or mutating the palmitoylation site on EGFR alters the EGF-induced signalling kinetics from a transient signal to a sustained signal. The change in signalling is accompanied by a decrease in cell proliferation in multiple human cancer cell lines. Our in vivo studies demonstrate that ablating the gene Zdhhc20 by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated inhibition in a mouse model of oncogenic Kras-driven lung adenocarcinoma potently inhibits tumorigenesis. The negative effect on tumorigenesis is mediated by EGFR since the expression of a palmitoylation-resistant mutant form of EGFR also inhibits Kras-driven lung adenocarcinoma. Finally, reducing EGFR palmitoylation increases the sensitivity of multiple cancer cell lines to existing inhibitors of EGFR and downstream signalling effector pathways. We will discuss the implications of these effects and strategies for targeting these new vulnerabilities.     

Oxidized high-density lipoprotein promotes CD36 palmitoylation and increases lipid uptake in macrophages

Oxidized high-density lipoprotein (oxHDL) reduces the ability of cells to mediate reverse cholesterol transport and also shows atherogenic properties. Palmitoylation of cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36), an important receptor mediating lipoprotein uptake, is required for fatty acid endocytosis. However, the relationship between oxHDL and CD36 has not been described in mechanistic detail. Here, we demonstrate using acyl-biotin exchange analysis that oxHDL activates CD36 by increasing CD36 palmitoylation, which promotes efficient uptake in macrophages. This modification increased CD36 incorporation into plasma lipid rafts and activated downstream signaling mediators, such as Lyn, Fyn, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase, which elicited enhanced oxHDL uptake and foam cell formation. Furthermore, blocking CD36 palmitoylation with the pharmacological inhibitor 2-bromopalmitate decreased cell surface translocation and lowered oxHDL uptake in oxHDL-treated macrophages. We verified these results by transfecting oxHDL-induced macrophages with vectors expressing wildtype or mutant CD36 (mCD36) in which the cytoplasmic palmitoylated cysteine residues were replaced. We show that cells containing mCD36 exhibited less palmitoylated CD36, disrupted plasma membrane trafficking, and reduced protein stability. Moreover, in ApoE^−/−CD36^−/− mice, lipid accumulation at the aortic root in mice receiving the mCD36 vector was decreased, suggesting that CD36 palmitoylation is responsible for lipid uptake in vivo. Finally, our data indicated that palmitoylation of CD36 was dependent on DHHC6 (Asp-His-His-Cys) acyltransferase and its cofactor selenoprotein K, which increased the CD36/caveolin-1 interaction and membrane targeting in cells exposed to oxHDL. Altogether, our study uncovers a causal link between oxHDL and CD36 palmitoylation and provides insight into foam cell formation and atherogenesis.     

A systematic analysis of protein palmitoylation in Caenorhabditis elegans

Background

Palmitoylation is a reversible post-translational protein modification which involves the addition of palmitate to cysteine residues. Palmitoylation is catalysed by the DHHC family of palmitoyl-acyl transferases (PATs) and reversibility is conferred by palmitoyl-protein thioesterases (PPTs). Mutations in genes encoding both classes of enzymes are associated with human diseases, notably neurological disorders, underlining their importance. Despite the pivotal role of yeast studies in discovering PATs, palmitoylation has not been studied in the key animal model Caenorhabditis elegans.

Results

Analysis of the C. elegans genome identified fifteen PATs, using the DHHC cysteine-rich domain, and two PPTs, by homology. The twelve uncategorised PATs were officially named using a dhhc-x system. Genomic data on these palmitoylation enzymes and those in yeast, Drosophila and humans was collated and analysed to predict properties and relationships in C. elegans. All available C. elegans strains containing a mutation in a palmitoylation enzyme were analysed and a complete library of RNA interference (RNAi) feeding plasmids against PAT or PPT genes was generated. To test for possible redundancy, double RNAi was performed against selected closely related PATs and both PPTs. Animals were screened for phenotypes including size, longevity and sensory and motor neuronal functions. Although some significant differences were observed with individual mutants or RNAi treatment, in general there was little impact on these phenotypes, suggesting that genetic buffering exists within the palmitoylation network in worms.

Conclusions

This study reports the first characterisation of palmitoylation in C. elegans using both in silico and in vivo approaches, and opens up this key model organism for further detailed study of palmitoylation in future.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-841) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

DHHC4 and DHHC5 Facilitate Fatty Acid Uptake by Palmitoylating and Targeting CD36 to the Plasma Membrane

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Ethanol inhibits palmitoylation of G protein G alpha(s)

Neurobiological actions of ethanol have been linked to perturbations in cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent signaling processes. Chronic ethanol exposure leads to desensitization of cAMP production in response to physiological ligands (heterologous desensitization). Ethanol-induced alterations in neuronal expression of G proteins G(s) and G(i) have been invoked as a cause of heterologous desensitization. However, effects of ethanol on G protein expression vary considerably among different experimental protocols, various brain regions and diverse neuronal cell types. Dynamic palmitoylation of G protein alpha subunits is critical for membrane localization and protein-protein interactions, and represents a regulatory feature of G protein function. We studied the effect of ethanol on G alpha(s) palmitoylation. In NG108-15 rat neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid cells, acute exposure to pharmacologically relevant concentrations of ethanol (25-100 mm) inhibited basal and prostaglandin E1-stimulated incorporation of palmitate into G alpha(s). Exposure of NG108-15 cells to ethanol for 72 h induced a shift in G alpha(s) to its non-palmitoylated state, coincident with an inhibition of prostaglandin E1-induced cAMP production. Both parameters were restored following 24 h of ethanol withdrawal. Chronic ethanol exposure also induced the depalmitoylation of G alpha(s) in human embryonic kidney (HEK)293 cells that overexpress wild-type G alpha(s) and caused heterologous desensitization of adenylyl cyclase. By contrast, HEK293 cells that express a non-palmitoylated mutant of G alpha(s) were insensitive to heterologous desensitization after chronic ethanol exposure. In summary, the findings identify a novel effect of ethanol on post-translational lipid modification of G alpha(s), and represent a mechanism by which ethanol might affect adenylyl cyclase activity.     

Differential effect of brefeldin A on the palmitoylation of surfactant protein C proprotein mutants.

The surfactant protein C precursor (proSP-C) is palmitoylated on two cysteines adjacent to its transmembrane domain. We showed previously that palmitoylation of proSP-C occurs in a postendoplasmic reticulum compartment and is not affected by the Golgi-disturbing agent brefeldin A (BFA). In contrast, the investigations presented here showed that BFA almost completely abolished palmitoylation of proSP-C mutants that contained alterations in the region between the palmitoylated cysteines and the transmembrane domain, including a Pro 30 to Leu mutant associated with interstitial lung disease. This differential effect of BFA was not caused by differences in the palmitoylation kinetics between wild-type proSP-C and the mutants and was not mimicked by nocodazole and monensin. However, differences between the mutants and wild-type proSP-C in the relative degree of processing suggest that BFA may unmask a difference in routing. This would imply that the amino acids just N-terminal of the transmembrane domain may be important for a proper sorting of proSP-C.     

Membrane localization of a rice calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) is mediated by myristoylation and palmitoylation

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs), the most abundant serine/threonine kinases in plants, are found in various subcellular localizations, which suggests that this family of kinases may be involved in multiple signal transduction pathways. A complete analysis to try to understand the molecular basis of the presence of CDPKs in various localizations in the cell has not been accomplished yet. It has been suggested that myristoylation may be responsible for membrane association of CDPKs. In this study, we used a rice CDPK, OSCPK2, which has a consensus sequence for myristoylation at the N-terminus, to address this question. We expressed wild-type OSCPK2 and various mutants in different heterologous systems to investigate the factors that affect its membrane association. The results show that OSCPK2 is myristoylated and palmitoylated and targeted to the membrane fraction. Both modifications are required, myristoylation being essential for membrane localization and palmitoylation for its full association. The fact that palmitoylation is a reversible modification may provide a mechanism for regulation of the subcellular localization. OSCPK2 is the first CDPK shown to be targeted to membranes by an src homology domain 4 (SH4) located at the N-terminus of the molecule.     

Effect of 2-fluoropalmitate,cerulenin and tunicamycin on the palmitoylation and intracellular translocation of myelin proteolipid protein

We have investigated the effect of documented protein palmitoylation inhibitors on the fatty acylation and intracellular transport of myelin proteolipid protein (PLP). To this end, brain slices from 20-day-old rats were incubated with either [³H]palmitate or [³H]leucine in the presence or absence of various concentrations of 2-fluoropalmitate (FP), cerulenin (CER), or tunicamycin (TM). FP ( 10 M) decreased the cellular uptake of [³H]palmitate and consequently reduced the labeling of palmitoyl-CoA, glycerolipids and PLP. CER ( 1 mM) reduced the palmitoylation of PLP with a concomitant decline in protein thiols. Consistent with being a fatty acyl-CoA analogue, TM ( 200 M) diminished the palmitoylation of PLP and lipids while increasing the amount of [³H]palmitoyl-CoA. Although both CER and TM decreased protein palmitoylation, only the latter affected the appearance of newly synthesized PLP into myelin. Because TM, but not CER, also reduced the formation of lipids, it is concluded that palmitoylation is not required for intracellular transport. Finally, comparison of the effect of TM in brain slices and in a cell-free system suggests that palmitoylation of PLP in whole cells may be an enzymatic process.