An American's view of Canadian medical education.

Undergraduate medical education in Canada and the United States is remarkably similar, except for the fact that Canadian medical schools are supported by their provincial governments. However, the systems diverge sharply at the postgraduate level. In Canada, the number and specialty mix of residents are negotiated by medical schools in response to educational and social needs; in the United States, these factors are largely determined by hospital service needs. The Canadian systems of accreditation, certification and payment for medical education after graduation are much simpler than those of the United States, and the accreditation and certification systems are more objective. In addition, the US system promotes subspecialization and a costly specialty imbalance, whereas Canada''s system has achieved an appropriate balance of specialists and generalists. In general, Canadian medical education appears to be simpler, more accountable and more socially responsive.     

First Recipients of Anthropological Doctorates in the United States, 1891-1930

This article seeks to show the origins of the professionalization of anthropology by examining early doctoral dissertations in this field and their authors. The bibliography consists of citations with biographical details of the authors, when known, of doctoral dissertations in anthropology from United States educational institutions up to 1930. One hundred twenty-four citations are given all, representing 18 institutions. Forty-one of the dissertations were not written for degrees in anthropology. Besides documenting existence of anthropological work outside recognized graduate programs of anthropology, the bibliography provides a demographic profile of anthropology and shows the distribution of subdiscipline concentrations and regional foci, as well as patterns in the professional domination of anthropology by graduates of various programs and in the publication of doctoral research. [Keywords: dissertations, anthropology—history, anthropology—bibliography, scholarly communication, graduate education]     

Status and Exchange in the Profession of Anthropology

This is a study of the distribution of Ph.D.s in anthropology who obtained their degrees from and who are teaching in Ph.D.-granting departments in the United States and Canada. 1358 graduates of 80 departments are considered. A quantitative method of ranking departments, based upon exchange theory principles, is applied to this universe and its results compared to the results of a qualitative ranking carried out by the American Council of Education (A.C.E.) based upon personal evaluation of departments by anthropologists themselves. An elite is designated and the degree to which that elite dominates the academic profession is expressed in terms of the distribution of its graduates as faculty of elite schools, other Ph.D.-granting schools, and non-Ph.D.-granting schools as compared with the distribution of nonelite graduates among those same faculties. A suggestion is made concerning the social structure of the academic profession of anthropology based on the results of the study.     

A Prospectus for Canadian Studies in Medical Education

The need for factual information on all phases of medical education is widely recognized. In the United States the Association of American Medical Colleges has initiated an extensive program of research in medical education. No comparable program exists in Canada.On the basis of studies of medical students at the University of British Columbia and the University of Saskatchewan, a prospectus for Canadian studies in medical education is suggested. Such studies might include an annual census of Canadian medical students as well as detailed studies of specific problems. Until such studies have been undertaken in Canada, only an incomplete picture of the various problems in medical education will be available.     

The Difference that Diaspora Makes: Thinking through the Anthropology of Immigrant Education in the United States

In this article, I examine the possibility of a productive dialogue between diaspora studies and the anthropology of immigrant education in the United States. Arguing that their respective views on the nation-state is a key source for their different orientations toward migrant social and cultural worlds, I nevertheless argue that an engagement between these two fields of study will yield more critical understandings of nationalism, the category of the "immigrant," and multiculturalism within both these areas of scholarship.     

A Look at Academic Anthropology: Through a Graph Darkly

An "external," nomothetic perspective that has been formulated by some historians of science (e.g., Kuhn 1968) is used to examine the history of anthropology in the United States. Regularities that characterize the growth of the physical sciences and the production and use of literature associated with them are shown to be characteristic of anthropology as well. Implications for the way anthropology will be done in the future are discussed . [anthropology, future of, growth of, history of]     

Complex Population Structure of Borrelia burgdorferi in Southeastern and South Central Canada as Revealed by Phylogeographic Analysis

Lyme disease, caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, is an emerging zoonotic disease in Canada and is vectored by the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis. Here we used Bayesian analyses of sequence types (STs), determined by multilocus sequence typing (MLST), to investigate the phylogeography of B. burgdorferi populations in southern Canada and the United States by analyzing MLST data from 564 B. burgdorferi-positive samples collected during surveillance. A total of 107 Canadian samples from field sites were characterized as part of this study, and these data were combined with existing MLST data for samples from the United States and Canada. Only 17% of STs were common between both countries, while 49% occurred only in the United States, and 34% occurred only in Canada. However, STs in southeastern Ontario and southwestern Quebec were typically identical to those in the northeastern United States, suggesting a recent introduction into this region from the United States. In contrast, STs in other locations in Canada (the Maritimes; Long Point, Ontario; and southeastern Manitoba) were frequently unique to those locations but were putative descendants of STs previously found in the United States. The picture in Canada is consistent with relatively recent introductions from multiple refugial populations in the United States. These data thus point to a geographic pattern of populations of B. burgdorferi in North America that may be more complex than simply comprising northeastern, midwestern, and Californian groups. We speculate that this reflects the complex ecology and spatial distribution of key reservoir hosts.     

Factors influencing the emigration of physicians from Canada to the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether location of postgraduate medical training and other factors are associated with the emigration of physicians from Canada to the United States. DESIGN: Case-control study, physicians were surveyed with the use of a questionnaire mailed in May 1994 (with a reminder sent in September 1994), responses to which were accepted until Dec. 31, 1994. PARTICIPANTS: Physicians randomly selected from the CMA database, 4000 with addresses in Canada and 4000 with current addresses in the United States and previous addresses in Canada. OUTCOME MEASURES: Sex, age, location of undergraduate and postgraduate medical training, qualifications, practice location, opinions concerning residence decisions, current satisfaction and plans. RESULTS: The overall response rate was 49.6% (50.0% among physicians in the United States and 49.2% among those in Canada). Age and sex distributions were similar among the 8000 questionnaire recipients and the nearly 4000 respondents. Physicians living in the United States were more likely to be older (mean 53.2 v. 49.6 years of age), male (87% v. 75%) and specialists (79% v. 52%) than those practising in Canada. Postgraduate training in the United States was associated with subsequent emigration (odds ratio 9.2, 95% confidence interval 7.8 to 10.7). However, in rating the importance of nine factors in the decision to emigrate or remain in Canada, there was no significant difference between the two groups in the rating assigned to location of postgraduate training. Professional factors rated most important by most physicians in both groups were professional/clinical autonomy, availability of medical facilities and job availability. Remuneration was considered an equally important factor by those in Canada and in the United States. Six of seven personal/family factors were rated as more important to their choice of practice location by respondents in Canada than by those in the United States. Current satisfaction was significantly higher among respondents in the United States. Most physicians in each group planned to continue practising at their current location. Of Canadian respondents, 22% indicated that they were more likely to move to the United States than they were a year beforehand, whereas 4% of US respondents indicated that they were more likely to return to Canada. CONCLUSIONS: Factors affecting the decision to move to the United States or remain in Canada can be categorized as "push" factors (e.g., government involvement) and "pull" factors (e.g., better geographic climate in the US). Factors can also be categorized by whether they are amenable to change (e.g., availability of medical facilities) or cannot be managed (e.g., proximity of relatives). An understanding of the reasons why physicians immigrate to the United States or remain in Canada is essential to planning physician resources nationally.     

The race concept in six regions: variation without consensus

Race, once the central concept in physical anthropology worldwide, now varies in the degree of support it receives in different regions. We present the currently available information on the status of the concept in the United States, the Spanish language areas, Poland, Europe, Russia, and China. Rejection of race ranges from high to low with the highest rejection occurring among anthropologists in the United States (and Canada). Rejection of race is moderate in Europe, sizeable in Poland and Cuba, and lowest in Russia and China. A discussion on the scientific and contextual reasons influencing these variations is presented. The tension between scientific evidence and social influences varies from region to region. The methods used in the studies reported here included questionnaires and content analysis. Response rates to questionnaires were often around 50 percent (with exception of the Polish studies). We discuss reasons for the low rates. Although a uniform method of data gathering is desirable, it may not suit scientists working in different traditions of theory and research. We conclude that it is once again timely to discuss the race concept in international meetings where all scientific and political changes occurring throughout the world in recent past decades are taken into account.     

Canadian-Trained Medical Scientists View Canadian Academia From Their American Laboratories

Interviews with 98 Canadian-trained basic medical scientists currently employed in the United States reveal that they were attracted to the United States by the belief that greater career opportunities exist in the United States than in Canada.They attributed the failure on the part of Canada to attract scientists to Canada and to retain their own graduates to: (1) Poor recruiting methods and a failure on the part of Canadian employees to keep in touch with Canadian scientists in American graduate and postgraduate training positions. (2) Scarcity of research funds. (3) Lack of opportunity in Canada occasioned by the smaller number of medical schools and medical research institutions as compared to the United States. (4) The negative conservatism of Canadian academic circles occasioned by academic inbreeding, anti-Semitism, Anglophilia and the tight control of research, research funds and university appointments by an oldguard “establishment”.     

American Anthropology as Foreign Policy

In the United States, the discipline of English literature and language has cohered around modeling domestic policy, while anthropology has cohered around modeling foreign policy. This is illustrated by way of anthropology's relation to the conceptual apparatus created in United States Indian policy as part of a global strategy in mapping foreignness. The author suggests an alternative outline for a history and calls for an expanded and self-conscious (re)vision of anthropology's role in constituting international order.     

Connectivity in piping plovers: Do breeding populations have distinct winter distributions?

Resightings of uniquely marked birds from 2001 to 2008 were used to determine winter distributions of 4 breeding populations of a species at risk, the piping plover (Charadrius melodus). Although considerable overlap exists, a distinct pattern in winter distributions was evident. Birds originating from eastern Canada wintered farthest north compared to other populations. Most individuals from the United States Great Lakes were found in South Carolina and Georgia in winter, whereas birds from eastern Canada were found primarily in North Carolina. Although the great majority of birds marked in Prairie Canada were observed wintering in Texas, particularly southern Texas, breeding plovers from the United States Great Plains were more widely distributed on the gulf coast from Florida to Texas. Very few large-scale movements of individuals in winter were reported either within or between years. This study highlights the significance of geographic regions for eastern Canada, the United States Great Lakes, the United States Great Plains, and Prairie Canada populations, and demonstrates relatively high winter site fidelity. This information will help focus conservation efforts for specific breeding populations during the winter. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

The Bias in Self‐reported Obesity From 1976 to 2005: A Canada–US Comparison

The objective of this study was to determine whether the bias in self‐reported estimates of obesity has changed over time and followed different patterns in Canada and the United States. Using age‐standardized data from three waves of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) in the United States and the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) and the Canadian Heart Health Survey (CHHS) in Canada, discrepancies were compared between reported and measured estimates of height, weight, and obesity (based on the BMI) from 1976 to 2005. Results indicated that obesity increased in both countries, but rates were higher in the United States. The discrepancy between self‐reported and measured obesity was small in the United States with reported data underestimating measured prevalence by about 3%; this stayed relatively constant over time. In Canada, the discrepancy was large and doubled in the past decade (from 4 to 8%). In the United States, self‐reported data may be more accurate in monitoring changes in obesity over time, as the estimates have consistently remained about 3% below the measured estimates, whereas in Canada, monitoring obesity based solely on self‐reported height and weight may produce inaccurate estimates because of the increasing discrepancy between self‐reported and measured data.     

A history of physical anthropology and the development of evolutionary thought in Canada

Canada is a large country geographically, but relatively small in terms of population. As a result, our major problem has always been communication. It is expensive and time consuming to get together to discuss problems. For example, a scholar in Newfoundland would find Prague to be as far away as a visit to a university in her own country (British Columbia). Then too, communication is often confounded by language because we are a bilingual country, but relatively few people speak both languages. Understandably, then, it is very difficult to speak of a national identity on such a topic as human evolution. Rather, we find that individuals have influenced the field either through their research or through their teaching. Academic development has been strongly influenced in the past by developments in the United States and Europe, particularly the United Kingdom. Nevertheless, we will attempt to trace the development of evolutionary throught, but not without a preliminary apology for oversights to our colleagues. The task is difficult, and we will surely overlook some names. We hope that our attempt will still be accurate in the wholistic sense. Regardless of the foregoing problems, we do see a broad historical development and the beginning of a Canadian perspective. This is more clearly seen if we trace the development of evolutionary thought within the context of the history of physical anthropology in Canada.     

Origins of harvested American black ducks: stable isotopes support the flyover hypothesis

Waterfowl management is more effective when based on detailed information on population connectivity between breeding, wintering, and stopover sites. For the American black duck (Anas rubripes), a species of conservation concern, estimates for the fall age ratio at harvest differed depending on whether harvest data were derived from Canada or the United States, suggesting regional differences. Within Canada, hunters in Atlantic Canada were more likely to harvest black ducks from nearby breeding locations compared to hunters in southern Ontario and Quebec, Canada, who were more likely to harvest individuals from the Boreal Softwood and Taiga Shield of eastern Canada. Black ducks harvested in the United States are thought to originate predominantly from northern portions of the breeding range, leading to the flyover hypothesis, which postulates that black ducks produced in the Boreal Softwood and Taiga Shield region are less susceptible to harvest by hunters in Atlantic Canada and northeastern United States. To test the flyover hypothesis, we examined regional and temporal differences in the origins of harvested black ducks using feathers from wings (n = 664) submitted by hunters to the species composition and parts collection surveys across 3 hunting seasons (2017–2018, 2018–2019, 2019–2020). We used a likelihood-based assignment method that relied on feather stable-hydrogen isotopes (δ²H) and stable-carbon isotopes (δ¹³C) to determine the natal or molt origin of individuals harvested within eastern Canada and the United States. We also used a spatial clustering technique to group harvested individuals by area of origin without a priori knowledge of such regions. Adult female black ducks originated farther south compared to males and juveniles. All sexes and ages of black ducks harvested in Atlantic Canada showed predominantly southern origins, while those harvested in the United States and other Canadian provinces primarily originated farther north within the boreal, supporting the flyover hypothesis. By contrast, we found no relationship between timing of harvest or peaks of migration and individual origin. After combining band returns and stable isotopes, we inferred 2 distinct stocks: the Mississippi flyway stock and the Atlantic flyway stock. We recommend that regional demographic parameters, particularly for Atlantic Canada, be directly measured to promote more effective conservation of black ducks and optimize harvest opportunities in the United States and Canada.     

Towards a virtual reality for plant-associated fungi in the United States and Canada

At present knowledge of fungal biodiversity in North America is scattered in diverse sources ranging from well-reviewed, comprehensive databases to unedited databases of reports from the literature, information on file cards, and uncomputerized reference collections. Resources available electronically were used to determine their relative importance in evaluating the plant-associated fungi known from the United States and to a lesser extent Canada. The results demonstrate that the literature provides the greatest information but that reference collections in the US National Fungus Collections contribute between 22–31% additional data. Little overlap exists between fungi isolated as endophytes and those reported in the literature or as reference collections. Eighty to 100% of the plant-associated fungi reported from Canada are accounted for in comprehensive resources for the United States. A comprehensive database of plant-associated fungi in Canada, the United States, and eventually Mexico would serve as a valuable resource for those making plant quarantine decisions.     

For Whom the Bell Tolls: Anthropologists Advising on Public Policy

What knowledge do cultural anthropologists have to contribute to public policy? What problems have they encountered and what roles should they assume? After reviewing several positions, this paper suggests that anthropologists consider contributing to public policy through other branches of government in addition to the executive. Emphasis is given to the legislative branch in a representative democracy. Although the paper discusses the United States, the approach ought to be applicable to other representative systems as well. [public policy, political anthropology, applied anthropology, ethics]     

The Excavation of American Indian Burial Sites: A Problem in Law and Professional Responsibility

The excavation of Indian burial sites poses serious ethical problems. Many American Indians regard the excavation of such sites as an affront to their actual and spiritual ancestors, while many archaeologists believe that scientific investigation should take absolute priority. This paper explores the judicial and legislative aspects of this practice in the United States and discusses attempts by professional associations to resolve the conflict. The paper suggests specific guidelines that could be followed by courts and legislators depending on whether the burial site is on reservation or nonreservation property, or whether the physical remains are recent or ancient. [archaeology, applied anthropology, ethics, anthropology and law, anthropology and public policy]     

The offshore jurisdiction of the states of the United States and the provinces of Canada—A comparison

Abstract

The coastal state has jurisdiction over the resources located in the seas and seabed adjacent to its coast. In federal states the question has arisen as to whether the rights in those resources are to be held by the national government or by the subsidiary territorial governments. It has been the focus of political activity and court litigation in the United States and Canada. This paper reviews in detail the status of the offshore claims of the states of the United States and the provinces of Canada. In delimiting these boundaries two systems of law have become relevant—modern public international law and historic common law. Both systems of law have advantages and disadvantages for the courts and interested parties. While the United States has chosen a route that relies very heavily on modern public international law, the Canadian situation is less clear. Litigation now in progress may resolve this issue in Canada by court decree unless a political settlement is reached first. A recent agreement between the Federal Government of Canada and the Gov eminent of Nova Scotia which calls for joint management and revenue sharing may point the way toward such a settlement.     

Physical anthropology in 1918 and the founding of the U.S. journal

In 1918, the first issue of the American Journal of Physical Anthropology was prepared and distributed by Aleš Hrdlička, the Curator of Physical Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution. This was a singular act, both in the general and specific sense. It was the first journal of physical anthropology published in the United States, and it was a sole effort by Hrdlička, who was committed to promoting and recognizing physical anthropology as a new science in America. On this 100th anniversary of the founding of the journal, Hrdlička's efforts were successful: physical/biological anthropology is a strong and timely discipline that represents a major area of scientific research today.