Interaction between pectin and rat hindgut microflora.

The contents of the lower alimentary tract from rats fed a semisynthetic, pectin-supplemented diet showed increased nitrate reductase activity and an increase in the amount of luminal contents in the intestine and cecum. Nitrate reductase activity was associated with the insoluble fraction of the gut contents which was sedimented by centrifugation (5,100 X g,20 min) and was abolished after treating the animals with streptomycin, neomycin, and bacitracin for 7 days. The pectin-dependent increase in cecal size and microbial nitrate reduction were reversed when animals were transferred from a pectin-supplemented onto a control semisynthetic diet. Polygalacturonic acid (pectic acid) was without effect on either cecal size or cecal microbial nitrate reductase activity. The studies demonstrate that pectin influences microbial metabolism in the alimentary tract.     

Metabolic activity and enzyme induction in rat fecal microflora maintained in continuous culture

The enzyme activity of the rat hindgut microflora maintained in an anaerobic two-stage continuous culture was compared with that of rat cecal contents. A qualitative comparison (API ZYM) showed a high degree of similarity between the two populations. Quantitative determinations showed that azoreductase, beta-glucosidase, nitrate reductase, and nitroreductase activities were comparable, and that beta-glucuronidase activity was very low in the culture. beta-Glucuronidase, beta-glucosidase, and nitrate reductase activities were induced within the culture by their respective substrates. Bile acids influenced microbial activity in vitro, with cholic acid inducing beta-glucosidase, azoreductase, and beta-glucuronidase activities and decreasing nitrate reductase activity. Chenodeoxycholic acid increased beta-glucosidase and beta-glucuronidase activities and decreased azoreductase, nitrate reductase, and nitroreductase activities in vitro. These studies demonstrate that the rat hindgut microflora may be successfully cultured in vitro and suggest control mechanisms that regulate the metabolic activity of these organisms in vivo.     

Metabolic activity and enzyme induction in rat fecal microflora maintained in continuous culture.

The enzyme activity of the rat hindgut microflora maintained in an anaerobic two-stage continuous culture was compared with that of rat cecal contents. A qualitative comparison (API ZYM) showed a high degree of similarity between the two populations. Quantitative determinations showed that azoreductase, beta-glucosidase, nitrate reductase, and nitroreductase activities were comparable, and that beta-glucuronidase activity was very low in the culture. beta-Glucuronidase, beta-glucosidase, and nitrate reductase activities were induced within the culture by their respective substrates. Bile acids influenced microbial activity in vitro, with cholic acid inducing beta-glucosidase, azoreductase, and beta-glucuronidase activities and decreasing nitrate reductase activity. Chenodeoxycholic acid increased beta-glucosidase and beta-glucuronidase activities and decreased azoreductase, nitrate reductase, and nitroreductase activities in vitro. These studies demonstrate that the rat hindgut microflora may be successfully cultured in vitro and suggest control mechanisms that regulate the metabolic activity of these organisms in vivo.     

Digestion of zooplankton in the alimentary tract of vendace (Coregonus albula) larvae

The degradation of zooplankton eaten by vendace larvae was investigated by cutting their tubiform alimentary tract into four quarters and analysing the contents separately. Soft-bodied rotifers were found to degrade and become indistinguishable in the anterior part of the alimentary tract, while cladocerans and copepods could still be identified in the posterior part. Assessing the diet of a larva on the basis of its whole alimentary tract contents was found to give biased results. More reliable estimates of the proportions of zooplankton taxa in the diet could be achieved from the first quarter of the alimentary tract.     

Growth, morphogenesis, and virulence of Candida albicans after oral inoculation in the germ-free and conventional chick

Balish, Edward (Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.), and A. W. Phillips. Growth, morphogenesis, and virulence of Candida albicans after oral inoculation in the germ-free and conventional chick. J. Bacteriol. 91:1736-1743. 1966.-The effects of intestinal bacteria on the multiplication, morphogenesis, and infectivity of Candida albicans in the alimentary tract were investigated by comparing results obtained in germ-free and conventional chicks after oral inoculation. This challenge resulted in the establishment of large numbers of the pathogen in the alimentary tract of each group of chicks; these numbers were increased in crop contents from challenged bacteria-free chicks wherein hyphae predominated over the yeast form. These animals also had lesions of the crop epithelium containing numerous hyphae and few yeast-like forms. In contrast, challenged conventional chicks receiving an adequate diet displayed no evidence of infection. Their alimentary tract contained the yeast form of C. albicans; no hyphae were seen. Although we found bacterial inhibition of C. albicans multiplication in the alimentary tract, this in itself did not seem to explain the resistance to intestinal candidiasis in our conventional chicks. We argued that this resistance to infection was due chiefly to the prevention of hyphal development in C. albicans by intestinal bacteria. C. albicans in the gut of our conventional chicks resulted in some increase in numbers of enterococci in contents from the crop. Increased pH values in contents from the gut of germ-free chicks were not clearly related to infection after challenge. The E(h) of the above crop contents were only slightly decreased in the germ-free crop. Thus the E(h) did not appear to be involved in susceptibility to infection. Invasion of the blood stream and kidneys of conventional chicks by the yeast form of C. albicans occurred in challenged animals receiving a purified diet which had been radiation-sterilized and stored for 6 months at room temperature (25 C). Their growth rate decreased and they became moribund; no hyphae were observed in tissues or intestine of these animals. Challenged bacteria-free chicks receiving the same diet were resistant to the above invasion, although they had crop lesions containing hyphae as described. The resistance of these chicks to systemic invasion was attributed to absence of intestinal bacteria competing for low levels of vitamins in the stored diet. Germ-free chicks had decreased levels of serum gamma-globulin which increased after challenge, whereas this value was unchanged in conventional birds after challenge.     

Microbial degradation of oxalate in the gastrointestinal tracts of rats

Rates of oxalate degradation by mixed bacterial populations in cecal contents from wild rats ranged from 2.5 to 20.6 mumol/g (dry weight) per h. The oxalate-degrading activity in cecal contents from three strains of laboratory rats (Long-Evans, Wistar, and Sprague-Dawley) from four commercial breeders was generally lower, ranging from 1.8 to 3.5 mumol/g (dry weight) of cecal contents per h. This activity did not increase when diets were supplemented with oxalate. When Sprague-Dawley rats from a fifth commercial breeder were fed an oxalate diet, rates of oxalate degradation in cecal contents increased from 2.0 to 23.1 mumol/g (dry weight) per h. Obligately anaerobic, oxalate-degrading bacteria, similar to ruminal strains of Oxalobacter formigenes, were isolated from the latter group of laboratory rats and from wild rats. Viable counts of these bacteria were as high as 10(8)/g (dry weight) of cecal contents, which was less than 0.1% of the total viable population. This report presents the first evidence for the presence of anaerobic oxalate-degrading bacteria in the cecal contents of rats and represents the first direct measurement of the concentration of these bacteria in the large bowel of monogastric animals. We propose that methods used for the maintenance of most commercial rat colonies often preclude the intestinal colonization of laboratory rats with anaerobic oxalate-degrading bacteria.     

Microbial degradation of oxalate in the gastrointestinal tracts of rats.

Rates of oxalate degradation by mixed bacterial populations in cecal contents from wild rats ranged from 2.5 to 20.6 mumol/g (dry weight) per h. The oxalate-degrading activity in cecal contents from three strains of laboratory rats (Long-Evans, Wistar, and Sprague-Dawley) from four commercial breeders was generally lower, ranging from 1.8 to 3.5 mumol/g (dry weight) of cecal contents per h. This activity did not increase when diets were supplemented with oxalate. When Sprague-Dawley rats from a fifth commercial breeder were fed an oxalate diet, rates of oxalate degradation in cecal contents increased from 2.0 to 23.1 mumol/g (dry weight) per h. Obligately anaerobic, oxalate-degrading bacteria, similar to ruminal strains of Oxalobacter formigenes, were isolated from the latter group of laboratory rats and from wild rats. Viable counts of these bacteria were as high as 10(8)/g (dry weight) of cecal contents, which was less than 0.1% of the total viable population. This report presents the first evidence for the presence of anaerobic oxalate-degrading bacteria in the cecal contents of rats and represents the first direct measurement of the concentration of these bacteria in the large bowel of monogastric animals. We propose that methods used for the maintenance of most commercial rat colonies often preclude the intestinal colonization of laboratory rats with anaerobic oxalate-degrading bacteria.     

Microbiology and ration digestibility in the hindgut of the ovine

Contents of the terminal ilea, ceca-proximal colons, and terminal recta were obtained from nine sheep, three of which were fed 100% orchardgrass hay, three of which were fed 60% cracked corn-40% orchardgrass hay, and three of which were fed 80% cracked corn-20% orchardgrass hay. The digestibility of dry matter in the ceca was greatest when the all-hay diet was fed, whereas the percentage of cellulose digestion in the ceca increased with increasing levels of concentrate. For all diets, the total volatile fatty acid concentrations were higher in the ceca than in the other two sites. The cecal pH levels decreased with increased corn levels in the diet. The total microbiol numbers per gram of ileal and cecal contents increased in response to feeding of concentrate; however, across all diets, the ileal counts were 8% or less of the cecal counts. In contrast, the cellulolytic microbial numbers in the ilea were 50% or more of those in the ceca and were highest with the all-hay diet. Both bacterial and end product concentrations in the ceca were equivalent to those occurring in rumina. A total of 16 cellulolytic cultures were isolated and characterized from ileal and cecal contents of animals fed all three diets. Seven gram-negative-rod-shaped organisms were identified as Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, whose capacity to digest cellulose exceeded that of several rumen strains. The guanine-plus-cytosine content of the DNA of one strain of B. fibrisolvens was 38.8 mol%, compared with the only previously reported value for this species of 41.2 mol%.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Microbiology and ration digestibility in the hindgut of the ovine.

Contents of the terminal ilea, ceca-proximal colons, and terminal recta were obtained from nine sheep, three of which were fed 100% orchardgrass hay, three of which were fed 60% cracked corn-40% orchardgrass hay, and three of which were fed 80% cracked corn-20% orchardgrass hay. The digestibility of dry matter in the ceca was greatest when the all-hay diet was fed, whereas the percentage of cellulose digestion in the ceca increased with increasing levels of concentrate. For all diets, the total volatile fatty acid concentrations were higher in the ceca than in the other two sites. The cecal pH levels decreased with increased corn levels in the diet. The total microbiol numbers per gram of ileal and cecal contents increased in response to feeding of concentrate; however, across all diets, the ileal counts were 8% or less of the cecal counts. In contrast, the cellulolytic microbial numbers in the ilea were 50% or more of those in the ceca and were highest with the all-hay diet. Both bacterial and end product concentrations in the ceca were equivalent to those occurring in rumina. A total of 16 cellulolytic cultures were isolated and characterized from ileal and cecal contents of animals fed all three diets. Seven gram-negative-rod-shaped organisms were identified as Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, whose capacity to digest cellulose exceeded that of several rumen strains. The guanine-plus-cytosine content of the DNA of one strain of B. fibrisolvens was 38.8 mol%, compared with the only previously reported value for this species of 41.2 mol%.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Effect of nitrogen salts on nitrate reductase activity and protein contents in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

The effects of different nitrogen salts on nitrate reductase activity and protein contents were investigated in three Yugoslav cultivars of wheat. The nitrate salts appeared to be a better form of nitrogen than ammonium in respect of the increase of the nitrate reductase activity and root total protein contents, whereas the treatment with ammonium salt resulted in a comparably higher shoot total protein contents. KNO₃ was the best in respect of the level of nitrate reductase activity. Different concentrations of nitrate and ammonium ions in nutrient solution, showed very similar effects on investigated parameters. NS Rana 2 cultivar had the highest values of nitrate reductase activity and protein contents.     

Development changes to gut microflora metabolism in mice.

Developmental changes in the activities of bacterial nitrate reductase, nitroreductase and beta-glucuronidase and their response to fermentable dietary fibre, were investigated in caecal contents from suckling mice (2-week-old) and in mice aged 4-24 weeks fed either a purified fibre-free diet or that diet supplemented with 5% (w/w) pectin. There was no apparent age-related trend common to the three enzymes studied. Nitrate reductase activity in the mice fed the fibre-free diet did not markedly alter with age. Pectin administration, however, was associated with a significant increase in nitrate reductase activity, particularly in 4-week-old mice. Nitroreductase activity exhibited an overall upward trend in mice from 2 to 12 weeks and thereafter decreased. Caecal beta-glucuronidase activity in mice increased sharply between 2 weeks and 4 weeks of age, thereafter not changing significantly until the 24th week. Pectin feeding had no consistent effect on activities either of nitroreductase or beta-glucuronidase. The changes in enzyme activities with age were not related to the concentration of bacteria in the caecum, which was highest in the 2-week-old mice. We conclude that the weaning is a period in which marked changes in caecal bacterial enzyme activities can occur.     

Dietary Resistant Starch Alters the Characteristics of Colonic Mucosa and Exerts a Protective Effect on Trinitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid-induced Colitis in Rats

The protective effect of a dietary high-amylose cornstarch (HAS) against trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis was examined in rats. Rats were fed a HAS-free basal diet or, a 15% or 30% HAS supplemented diet for 10 d, and then received intracolonic TNBS to induce colitis and fed the respective diets for a further 8 d. HAS ingestion significantly protected colonic injuries as evidenced by lower colonic myeloperoxidase activity. Rats fed the HAS diet showed greater cecal short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production than those fed the basal diet. Further, just before TNBS administration, HAS ingestion dose-dependently increased fecal and cecal mucin contents, and protein and nucleic acid contents in the colonic mucosa. HAS ingestion also reduced colonic permeability. The protective effect of HAS ingestion on TNBS-induced colitis is perhaps exerted through alterations in colonic mucosa, possibly due to cecal SCFA production.     

Dietary resistant starch alters the characteristics of colonic mucosa and exerts a protective effect on trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced colitis in rats

The protective effect of a dietary high-amylose cornstarch (HAS) against trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis was examined in rats. Rats were fed a HAS-free basal diet or, a 15% or 30% HAS supplemented diet for 10 d, and then received intracolonic TNBS to induce colitis and fed the respective diets for a further 8 d. HAS ingestion significantly protected colonic injuries as evidenced by lower colonic myeloperoxidase activity. Rats fed the HAS diet showed greater cecal short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production than those fed the basal diet. Further, just before TNBS administration, HAS ingestion dose-dependently increased fecal and cecal mucin contents, and protein and nucleic acid contents in the colonic mucosa. HAS ingestion also reduced colonic permeability. The protective effect of HAS ingestion on TNBS-induced colitis is perhaps exerted through alterations in colonic mucosa, possibly due to cecal SCFA production.     

Seasonal variation in the diet of Tetrix tenuicornis (Orthoptera: Tetrigidae)

Many animals change their diet during the season according to food availability. The current field study determined whether the groundhopper Tetrix tenuicornis (Orthoptera: Tetrigidae), which specializes on moss and detritus, changes its diet during the season under conditions in which food components are constantly available. Dietary differences of T. tenuicornis were studied through the season, from May to October, by alimentary tract analyses. Detritus and moss (phylloids) dominated the alimentary tract contents, and other components were found in only minor amounts. The diversity of moss species in the alimentary tract varied during the season, and more moss species were consumed in spring and summer than in autumn. Diet was affected by developmental stage, sex (females consumed more food than males), population and abiotic factors. The rate at which detritus was consumed was significantly affected by the ambient temperature but the rate at which moss was consumed was mainly affected by relative humidity. Later instars consumed greater amounts of detritus than younger instars, and this difference corresponded to body size.     

Developmental changes to gut microflora metabolism in mice

W.E. BRENNAN-CRADDOCK, A.K. MALLETT, I.R. ROWLAND AND S. NEALE. 1992. Developmental changes in the activities of bacterial nitrate reductase, nitroreductase and β-glucuronidase and their response to fermentable dietary fibre, were investigated in caecal contents from suckling mice (2-week-old) and in mice aged 4–24 weeks fed either a purified fibre-free diet or that diet supplemented with 5% (w/w) pectin. There was no apparent age-related trend common to the three enzymes studied. Nitrate reductase activity in the mice fed the fibre-free diet did not markedly alter with age. Pectin administration, however, was associated with a significant increase in nitrate reductase activity, particularly in 4-week-old mice. Nitroreductase activity exhibited an overall upward trend in mice from 2 to 12 weeks and thereafter decreased. Caecal β-glucuronidase activity in mice increased sharply between 2 weeks and 4 weeks of age, thereafter not changing significantly until the 24th week. Pectin feeding had no consistent effect on activities either of nitroreductase or β-glucuronidase. The changes in enzyme activities with age were not related to the concentration of bacteria in the caecum, which was highest in the 2-week-old mice.
We conclude that the weaning is a period in which marked changes in caecal bacterial enzyme activities can occur.     

The use of rats associated with a human faecal flora as a model for studying the effects of diet on the human gut microflora

The activities of four bacterial biotransformation enzymes (beta-glucosidase, beta-glucuronidase, nitrate reductase and nitroreductase) were measured in the caecal contents of conventional flora rats or germ-free rats contaminated with a mixed, human faecal flora and compared with activities present in a fresh human stool preparation. Both the conventional flora rats and the rats inoculated with a human flora exhibited an enzyme profile generally similar to that of human faeces, although the conventional rat flora exhibited negligible nitrate reductase activity. The enzyme profile remained essentially unaltered in both human flora preparations following supplementation of the diet with pectin, whereas the conventional rat flora responded to this plant cell wall carbohydrate with a significant increase in nitrate reductase activity. The results demonstrate that enzymic activities of the human faecal microflora can be simulated in rats associated with a mixed population of human intestinal bacteria.     

The use of rats associated with a human faecal flora as a model for studying the effects of diet on the human gut microflora

The activities of four bacterial biotransformation enzymes (β-glucosidase, β-glucuronidase, nitrate reductase and nitroreductase) were measured in the caecal contents of conventional flora rats or germ-free rats contaminated with a mixed, human faecal flora and compared with activities present in a fresh human stool preparation. Both the conventional flora rats and the rats inoculated with a human flora exhibited an enzyme profile generally similar to that of human faeces, although the conventional rat flora exhibited negligible nitrate reductase activity. The enzyme profile remained essentially unaltered in both human flora preparations following supplementation of the diet with pectin, whereas the conventional rat flora responded to this plant cell wall carbohydrate with a significant increase in nitrate reductase activity. The results demonstrate that enzymic activities of the human faecal microflora can be simulated in rats associated with a mixed population of human intestinal bacteria.     

植被不同退化状态下尕海湿地土壤氮含量及酶活性特征

土壤中氮素的吸收、转化及含量的变化是影响植被生长的关键因素。为探讨湿地植被不同退化状态对土壤氮组分含量和相关酶活性的影响,以及土壤氮组分含量与相关酶活性之间的关系,以甘南尕海湿地不同植被退化状态样地（未退化CK、轻度退化SD、中度退化MD和重度退化HD）为研究对象,采用野外采样与室内实验相结合的方法,分析了植被不同退化状态下不同形态氮组分（全氮、铵态氮、硝态氮和微生物量氮）含量的变化特征,以及土壤氮转化酶（蛋白酶、脲酶、硝酸还原酶和亚硝酸还原酶）活性之间的相关关系。结果表明：（1）在植被退化状态下,土壤含水量逐渐减小,土壤温度呈先减小后增大的趋势;（2）随着植被退化程度的加剧,硝态氮含量呈增加趋势,而全氮、铵态氮和微生物量氮含量均随退化程度加剧呈减小趋势;土壤蛋白酶活性随退化程度的加剧而减小,脲酶活性呈先减小后增大的趋势,重度退化活性最高,轻度退化最低;硝酸还原酶活性随退化程度的加剧而增加,亚硝酸还原酶活性表现为"升-降-升"的变化趋势,即轻度退化活性最高,未退化和中度退化较低;（3）土壤蛋白酶活性与全氮、铵态氮和微生物量氮呈极显著正相关关系（P < 0.01）,与硝态氮含量呈显著负相关关系（P < 0.05）;硝酸还原酶活性与蛋白酶活性恰好相反;脲酶活性与微生物量氮含量呈极显著正相关关系（P < 0.01）,与全氮含量呈显著正相关关系（P < 0.05）;亚硝酸还原酶活性与全氮和铵态氮含量呈极显著正相关关系（P < 0.01）,与硝态氮含量呈显著负相关关系（P < 0.05）。综上,在尕海湿地植被退化条件下,土壤氮组分含量增加可以有效提高相关酶活性。     

Potential rates of fermentation in digesta from the gastrointestinal tract of pigs: effect of feeding fermented liquid feed

Microbial catabolic capacity in digesta from the gastrointestinal tract of pigs fed either dry feed or fermented liquid feed (FLF) was determined with the PhenePlate multisubstrate system. The in vitro technique was modified to analyze the kinetics of substrate catabolism mediated by the standing stock of enzymes (potential rates of fermentation), allowing a quantitative evaluation of the dietary effect on the catabolic capacity of the microbiota. In total, the potential rates of fermentation were significantly reduced in digesta from the large intestine (cecum, P < 0.1; colon, P < 0.01; and rectum, P < 0.0001) of pigs fed FLF compared to pigs fed dry feed. No effect of diet was observed in the stomach (P = 0.71) or the distal part of the small intestine (P = 0.97). The highest rates of fermentation and the most significant effect of diet were observed for readily fermentable carbohydrates like maltose, sucrose, and lactose. Feeding FLF to pigs also led to a reduction in the large intestine of the total counts of anaerobic bacteria in general and lactic acid bacteria specifically, as well as of microbial activity, as determined by the concentration of ATP and short-chain fatty acids. The low-molecular-weight carbohydrates were fermented mainly to lactic acid in the FLF before being fed to the animals. This may have limited microbial nutrient availability in the digesta reaching the large intestine of pigs fed FLF and may have caused the observed reduction in activity and density of the cecal and colonic microbial population. On the other hand, feeding FLF to pigs reduced the viable counts of coliform bacteria (indicator of Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp.) most profoundly in the stomach and the distal part of the small intestine, probably due to the bactericidal effect of lactic acid and low pH. The results presented clearly demonstrate that feeding FLF to pigs had a great impact on the indigenous microbiota, as reflected in bacterial numbers, short-chain fatty acid concentration, and substrate utilization. However, completely different mechanisms may be involved in the proximal and the distal parts of the gastrointestinal tract. The present study illustrates the utility of the PhenePlate system for quantifying the catabolic capacity of the indigenous gastrointestinal tract microbiota.     

Why cattle feed much and humans think much - New approach to confirm the expensive tissue hypothesis by molecular data

The “expensive tissue hypothesis” states that large brains are active at high metabolic rates, which have to be financed by a significant trade-off with other organs such as the alimentary tract. Recent morphological findings on primate brains and guts support this idea also considering the importance of high-energy diets as a possible driving power of this process. However, the trade-off correlation between brain and alimentary tract, the essence of the “expensive tissue hypothesis”, has not yet been tested using molecular data to complement morpho-functional findings. We therefore hypothesize that the activity of marker proteins expressed both in brain and alimentary tract should parallel functional morphology in organs at the molecular level. Thus, in animals feeding on hard to digest diet, we would expect a high concentration per unit mass of that marker protein in the digestive tract and reversely a lower concentration in the brain. In contrast, in animals feeding on easily-digested, high-energy food we would expect the reverse pattern. Recent preliminary studies suggest that carbonic anhydrase II (CA-II) could act as a marker. The enzyme concentration was found to increase in the brain with higher cerebral activity from cattle to humans and to reversely decrease in salivary secretions. The reverse concentration of CA-II in saliva and brains of cattle and primates might be the first molecular evidence of the validity of the “expensive tissue hypothesis”.