Deletion of naive CD8 T cells requires persistent antigen and is not programmed by an initial signal from the tolerogenic APC

Activation of naive CD8 T cells in vivo requires the recognition of cognate peptide-MHC complexes on APCs. Depending upon the activation status of the APC, such recognition will promote either a vigorous immune response or T cell tolerance and deletion. Recent studies suggest that the initial signals provided by APCs are sufficient to program the proliferation of naive CD8 T cells and their differentiation into effector cells. In this study, we sought to determine whether an initial encounter with tolerogenic APCs was sufficient to program deletion of naive CD8 T cells. Surprisingly, we find that regardless of whether naive CD8 T cells were stimulated by activated or quiescent APCs, transfer of the activated T cells into an Ag-free host was sufficient to ensure survival. Thus, although the extent of clonal expansion and development of effector function is determined by the activation status of the stimulatory APC, peripheral clonal deletion requires persistent Ag and is not determined by the initial stimulatory event.     

Adaptive tolerance and clonal anergy are distinct biochemical states

Adaptive tolerance is a process by which T cells become desensitized when Ag stimulation persists following an initial immune response in vivo. To examine the biochemical changes in TCR signaling present in this state, we used a mouse model in which Rag2(-/-) TCR-transgenic CD4(+) T cells were transferred into CD3epsilon(-/-) recipients expressing their cognate Ag. Compared with naive T cells, adaptively tolerant T cells had normal levels of TCR and slightly increased levels of CD4. Following activation with anti-TCR and anti-CD4 mAbs, the predominant signaling block in the tolerant cells was at the level of Zap70 kinase activity, which was decreased 75% in vitro. Phosphorylations of the Zap70 substrates (linker of activated T cells and phospholipase Cgamma1 were also profoundly diminished. This proximal defect impacted mostly on the calcium/NFAT and NF-kappaB pathways, with only a modest decrease in ERK1/2 phosphorylation. This state was contrasted with T cell clonal anergy in which the RAS/MAPK pathway was preferentially impaired and there was much less inhibition of Zap70 kinase activity. Both hyporesponsive states manifested a block in IkappaB degradation. These results demonstrate that T cell adaptive tolerance and clonal anergy are distinct biochemical states, possibly providing T cells with two molecular mechanisms to curtail responsiveness in different biological circumstances.     

Naive T cells are resistant to anergy induction by anti-CD3 antibodies

Anti-CD3 mAbs are potent immunosuppressive agents used in clinical transplantation. It has been generally assumed that one of the anti-CD3 mAb-mediated tolerance mechanisms is through the induction of naive T cell unresponsiveness, often referred to as anergy. We demonstrate in this study that naive T cells stimulated by anti-CD3 mAbs both in vivo and in vitro do not respond to the superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin B nor to soluble forms of anti-CD3 mAbs and APC, but express increased reactivity to plastic-coated forms of the same anti-CD3 mAbs and to their nominal Ag/class II MHC, a finding that is difficult to rationalize with the concept of anergy. Phenotypic and detailed kinetic studies further suggest that a strong signal 1 delivered by anti-CD3 mAbs in the absence of costimulatory molecules does not lead to anergy, but rather induces naive T cells to change their mitogen responsiveness and acquire features of memory T cells. In marked contrast, Ag-experienced T cells are sensitive to anergy induction under the same experimental settings. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that exposure of naive T cells in vivo and in vitro to a strong TCR stimulus does not induce Ag unresponsiveness, indicating that sensitivity to negative signaling through TCR/CD3 triggering is developmentally regulated in CD4(+) T cells.     

The role of peripheral T-cell deletion in transplantation tolerance

The apoptotic deletion of thymocytes that express self-reactive antigen receptors is the basis of central (thymic) self-tolerance. However, it is clear that some autoreactive T cells escape deletion in the thymus and exist as mature lymphocytes in the periphery. Therefore, peripheral mechanisms of tolerance are also crucial, and failure of these peripheral mechanisms leads to autoimmunity. Clonal deletion, clonal anergy and immunoregulation and/or suppression have been suggested as mechanisms by which 'inappropriate' T-lymphocyte responses may be controlled in the periphery. Peripheral clonal deletion, which involves the apoptotic elimination of lymphocytes, is critical for T-cell homeostasis during normal immune responses, and is recognized as an important process by which self-tolerance is maintained. Transplantation of foreign tissue into an adult host represents a special case of 'inappropriate' T-cell reactivity that is subject to the same central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms that control reactivity against self. In this case, the unusually high frequency of naive T cells able to recognize and respond against non-self-allogeneic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens leads to an exceptionally large pool of pathogenic effector lymphocytes that must be controlled if graft rejection is to be avoided. A great deal of effort has been directed toward understanding the role of clonal anergy and/or active immunoregulation in the induction of peripheral transplantation tolerance but, until recently, relatively little progress had been made towards defining the potential contribution of clonal deletion. Here, we outline recent data that define a clear requirement for deletion in the induction of peripheral transplantation tolerance across MHC barriers, and discuss the potential implications of these results in the context of current treatment modalities used in the clinical transplantation setting.     

Requirement for T-cell apoptosis in the induction of peripheral transplantation tolerance.

The mechanisms of allograft tolerance have been classified as deletion, anergy, ignorance and suppression/regulation. Deletion has been implicated in central tolerance, whereas peripheral tolerance has generally been ascribed to clonal anergy and/or active immunoregulatory states. Here, we used two distinct systems to assess the requirement for T-cell deletion in peripheral tolerance induction. In mice transgenic for Bcl-xL, T cells were resistant to passive cell death through cytokine withdrawal, whereas T cells from interleukin-2-deficient mice did not undergo activation-induced cell death. Using either agents that block co-stimulatory pathways or the immunosuppressive drug rapamycin, which we have shown here blocks the proliferative component of interleukin-2 signaling but does not inhibit priming for activation-induced cell death, we found that mice with defective passive or active T-cell apoptotic pathways were resistant to induction of transplantation tolerance. Thus, deletion of activated T cells through activation-induced cell death or growth factor withdrawal seems necessary to achieve peripheral tolerance across major histocompatibility complex barriers.     

Urinary bladder epithelium antigen induces CD8+ T cell tolerance, activation, and autoimmune response

The effort to explore the specific autoimmune mechanisms of urinary bladder has long been hindered due to a lack of proper animal models. To better elucidate this issue, we developed a novel line of transgenic (Tg) mice, designated as URO-OVA mice, that express the model Ag OVA as a "self"-Ag on the bladder epithelium. URO-OVA mice are naturally tolerant to OVA and show no response to OVA stimulation. Adoptive transfer of naive OVA-specific T cells showed cell proliferation, activation, and infiltration but no bladder histopathology. In contrast, adoptive transfer of activated OVA-specific T cells induced OVA-mediated histological bladder inflammation. Increased mast cells and up-regulated mRNA expressions of TNF-alpha, nerve growth factor, and substance P precursor were also observed in the inflamed bladder. To further facilitate bladder autoimmunity study, we crossbred URO-OVA mice with OVA-specific CD8(+) TCR Tg mice (OT-I mice) to generate a dual Tg line URO-OVA/OT-I mice. The latter mice naturally acquire clonal deletion for autoreactive OT-I CD8(+) T cells (partial deletion in the thymus and severe deletion in the periphery). Despite this clonal deletion, URO-OVA/OT-I mice spontaneously develop autoimmune cystitis at 10 wk of age. Further studies demonstrated that the inflamed bladder contained infiltrating OT-I CD8(+) T cells that had escaped clonal deletion and gained effector functions before developing histological bladder inflammation. Taken together, we demonstrate for the first time that the bladder epithelium actively presents self-Ag to the immune system and induces CD8(+) T cell tolerance, activation, and autoimmune response.     

Expression of a tolerizing tumor antigen in peripheral tissue does not preclude recovery of high-affinity CD8+ T cells or CTL immunotherapy of tumors expressing the antigen

Transgenic (TG) mice were generated selectively expressing the gag protein of Friend murine leukemia virus (FMuLV) in the liver. FMuLV(gag) is also expressed by the FBL leukemia, and is the immunodominant tumor Ag of the CD8(+) T cell response in C57BL/6 mice. gag-TG mice expressing FMuLV(gag) in the liver were tolerant to the protein and failed to generate a CTL response to either FBL or FMuLV(gag). This tolerance reflected anergy rather than deletion, as CTL responsiveness could be recovered after four cycles of in vitro stimulation. Adoptively transferred gag-specific T cells were not anergized in gag-TG recipients, as revealed by antitumor activity in vivo. Also, such T cells did not induce detectable autoimmune injury in gag-TG liver cells. These results suggest that the requirements for a tissue Ag to provide a tolerizing stimulus are distinct from those for being the target of a T cell-mediated autoimmune response and that the requirements for induction and maintenance of peripheral tolerance are distinct for naive and primed T cells. That anergic T cells reactive with tumor-associated Ags can be recovered by repetitive in vitro stimulation and can mediate tumor therapy suggests strategies that use such Ags to generate CTL for adoptive immunotherapy should be further developed.     

Antigen-experienced T cells undergo a transient phase of unresponsiveness following optimal stimulation

Interaction of the Ag-specific receptor of T lymphocytes with its Ag/MHC ligand can lead either to cell activation or to a state of unresponsiveness often referred to as anergy. It has been generally assumed that anergy develops as a consequence of inadequate stimulation, such as in response to altered peptide ligands or to agonists presented by costimulatory-deficient accessory cells. The present study uncovers an alternative way of inducing an unresponsive state in T cells. Indeed, we demonstrate herein that Ag-stimulation of murine CD4+ Th clones induces cellular activation, characterized by cytokine production and cell proliferation, followed by a state of transient (lasting up to 6 days) unresponsiveness to further antigenic stimulation. This state of activation-induced unresponsiveness 1) is not a consequence of inadequate costimulation, as it occurs when cells are stimulated in the presence of dendritic cells or anti-CD28 Abs; 2) develops after an optimal response to Ag; 3) is not due to cell death/apoptosis or CTLA-4 engagement; 4) down-regulates the proliferation and cytokine production of both Th1- and Th2-like clones; and 5) does not affect the early steps of signal transduction. Finally, naive T cells are not sensitive to this novel form of unresponsiveness, but become gradually susceptible to activation-induced unresponsiveness upon Ag stimulation. Collectively, these data suggest that activation-induced T cell unresponsiveness may represent a regulatory mechanism limiting the clonal expansion and effector cell function of Ag-experienced T cells, thus contributing to the homeostasis of an immune response.     

Clonal anergy blocks the response to IL-4, as well as the production of IL-2, in dual-producing T helper cell clones.

In this report we extend the in vitro clonal anergy model to examine the regulation of proliferation in T cells that secrete both IL-2 and IL-4. Newly cloned Ag-specific murine T cells are shown to depend on both IL-2 and IL-4 synthesis for maximal proliferation. Whereas IL-2 responsiveness is constitutive in these cells, IL-4 responsiveness develops only after Ag and APC stimulation. Remarkably, proliferation of these cells to Ag is sensitive to inhibition by clonal anergy, even though IL-4 synthesis remains inducible. Anergy in these cells is associated with an inability to respond to IL-4, in addition to the development of an IL-2 production defect. The results suggest that anergy induction may be capable of preventing the clonal expansion of autoreactive T cells producing both IL-2 and IL-4 in vivo.     

Severely impaired clonal deletion of CD4+ T cells in low-dose irradiated mice: role of T cell antigen receptor and IL-7 receptor signals

Systemic administration of high doses of soluble Ag induces peripheral CD4+ T cell tolerance in unmanipulated hosts. To test whether tolerance is modified under conditions of transient lymphopenia, we tracked the response of 5C.C7 TCR-transgenic CD4+ T cells to i.v. moth cytochrome c peptide in mice that received low-dose gamma irradiation 10 days previously. This model was chosen because it does not support spontaneous lymphopenia-induced proliferation of 5C.C7 cells, allowing the study of Ag-specific responses without interference from simultaneous spontaneous proliferation. Clonal expansion in response to i.v. peptide was increased in irradiated mice, while clonal deletion was severely impaired in comparison with untreated animals. Amplified TCR triggering was observed in irradiated hosts, consistent with dendritic cell activation leading to enhanced Ag presentation. Failure of deletion was accompanied by persistent T cell activation and accumulation of Th1 effector cells. Up-regulated expression of IL-7R and the prosurvival protein Bcl-x(L) was associated with clonal persistence. Cells with memory and naive phenotypes were both represented within persistent clones, but no Th1 function could be demonstrated within the long-term memory population. Failure of clonal deletion in irradiated hosts represents a novel mechanism limiting TCR diversity in a lymphopenic environment and may contribute to subsequent autoimmunity.     

Cyclosporine A and peripheral tolerance. Inhibition of veto cell-mediated clonal deletion of postthymic precursor cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

Veto cell-mediated suppression of CTL responses has been proposed as one mechanism by which self tolerance is maintained in mature T cell populations. We have reported that murine bone marrow cells cultured in the presence of high-dose IL-2 (activated bone marrow cells) mediate strong veto suppressor function in vitro and in vivo, and that such veto activity is effected through clonal deletion of cytotoxic T cell precursors. In our studies, we have determined that bone marrow cell populations from athymic NCr-nu mice (H-2d) mediate strong veto cell activity without exposure to exogenous IL-2 in vitro. To examine mechanisms by which these naturally occurring veto cell populations in BM suppress precursor CTL (pCTL) responses, we used as a responding cell population in MLC, spleen cells of transgenic mice expressing at high frequency TCR specific for H-2 Ld encoded Ag with stimulation by H-2d-expressing cells in culture. Flow cytometric analysis was performed by staining the responding MLC cell population with the mAb 1B2 specific for the transgene-encoded TCR and determined changes of 1B2+ T cells. Such experiments demonstrated that the anti-H-2d cytotoxic response by these cell populations was specifically suppressed by NCr-nu (H-2d) bone marrow, and that 1B2+ pCTL were in fact specifically deleted from the responding cell population by incubation with such naturally occurring veto cell populations expressing the appropriate target Ag. In addition, to further understand the interactions of pCTL and veto cells and possible contributions by the latter to peripheral tolerance, we evaluated the effect of cyclosporine A (CsA) on veto cell-mediated suppression of pCTL of the transgenic mice. CsA inhibited veto cell-mediated suppression of cytotoxic T cell responses, and this inhibition correlated with a lack of clonal deletion of pCTL by veto cells in the presence of CsA. Furthermore, CsA exerted its effect through pCTL and not through veto cells, indicating that pCTL may play an active role in their own deletion by veto cells.     

Clonal anergy is maintained independently of T cell proliferation

Ag encounter in the absence of proliferation results in the establishment of T cell unresponsiveness, also known as T cell clonal anergy. Anergic T cells fail to proliferate upon restimulation because of the inability to produce IL-2 and to properly regulate the G(1) cell cycle checkpoint. Because optimal TCR and CD28 engagement can elicit IL-2-independent cell cycle progression, we investigated whether CD3/CD28-mediated activation of anergic T cells could overcome G(1) cell cycle block, drive T cell proliferation, and thus reverse clonal anergy. We show here that although antigenic stimulation fails to elicit G(1)-to-S transition, anti-CD3/CD28 mAbs allow proper cell cycle progression and proliferation of anergic T cells. However, CD3/CD28-mediated cell division does not restore Ag responsiveness. Our data instead indicate that reversal of clonal anergy specifically requires an IL-2-dependent, rapamycin-sensitive signal, which is delivered independently of cell proliferation. Thus, by tracing proliferation and Ag responsiveness of individual cells, we show that whereas both TCR/CD28 and IL-2-generated signals can drive T cell proliferation, only IL-2/IL-2R interaction regulates Ag responsiveness, indicating that proliferation and clonal anergy can be independently regulated.     

Reciprocal NFAT1 and NFAT2 nuclear localization in CD8+ anergic T cells is regulated by suboptimal calcium signaling

Anergy is an important mechanism of maintaining peripheral immune tolerance. T cells rendered anergic are refractory to further stimulation and are characterized by defective proliferation and IL-2 production. We used a model of in vivo anergy induction in murine CD8+ T cells to analyze the initial signaling events in anergic T cells. Tolerant T cells displayed reduced phospholipase Cgamma activation and calcium mobilization, indicating a defect in calcium signaling. This correlated with a block in nuclear localization of NFAT1 in anergic cells. However, we found that stimulation of anergic, but not naive T cells induced nuclear translocation of NFAT2. This suggested that NFAT2 is activated preferentially by reduced calcium signaling, and we confirmed this hypothesis by stimulating naive T cells under conditions of calcium limitation or partial calcineurin inhibition. Thus, our work provides new insight into how T cell stimulation conditions might dictate specific NFAT isoform activation and implicates NFAT2 involvement in the expression of anergy-related genes.     

Extrathymic tolerance of mature T cells: clonal elimination as a consequence of immunity

The mechanism by which T lymphocytes are tolerized to self or foreign antigens is still controversial. Clonal deletion is the major mechanism of tolerance for immature thymocytes; for mature T cells, tolerance is considered to reflect anergy rather than deletion, and to be a consequence of defective presentation of antigen. This paper documents a novel form of tolerance resulting when mature T cells encounter antigen in immunogenic form. Evidence is presented that exposure of mature T cells to Mlsa antigens in vivo leads to specific tolerance and disappearance of Mlsa-reactive V beta 6+ T cells. Surprisingly, the clonal elimination of V beta 6+ cells is preceded by marked expansion of these cells. Thus, tolerance induction can be the end result of a powerful immune response. These data raise important questions concerning the relationship of tolerance and memory.     

Anergic responses characterize a large fraction of human autoreactive naive B cells expressing low levels of surface IgM

B cell anergy represents an important mechanism of peripheral immunological tolerance for mature autoreactive B cells that escape central tolerance enforced by receptor editing and clonal deletion. Although well documented in mice, the extent of its participation in human B cell tolerance remains to be fully established. In this study, we characterize the functional behavior of strictly defined human naive B cells separated on the basis of their surface IgM (sIgM) expression levels. We demonstrate that cells with lower sIgM levels (IgM(lo)) are impaired in their ability to flux calcium in response to either anti-IgM or anti-IgD cross-linking and contain a significantly increased frequency of autoreactive cells compared with naive B cells with higher levels of sIgM. Phenotypically, in healthy subjects, IgM(lo) cells are characterized by the absence of activation markers, reduction of costimulatory molecules (CD19 and CD21), and increased levels of inhibitory CD22. Functionally, IgM(lo) cells display significantly weaker proliferation, impaired differentiation, and poor Ab production. In aggregate, the data indicate that hyporesponsiveness to BCR cross-linking associated with sIgM downregulation is present in a much larger fraction of all human naive B cells than previously reported and is likely to reflect a state of anergy induced by chronic autoantigen stimulation. Finally, our results indicate that in systemic lupus erythematosus patients, naive IgM(lo) cells display increased levels of CD95 and decreased levels of CD22, a phenotype consistent with enhanced activation of autoreactive naive B cells in this autoimmune disease.     

Central tolerance to self-antigen expressed by cortical epithelial cells

The exposure of developing thymocytes to high-affinity self-Ag results in T cell tolerance. A predominant mechanism for this is clonal deletion; though receptor editing, anergy induction, and positive selection of regulatory T cells have also been described. It is unclear what signals are involved in determining different tolerance mechanisms. In particular, OT-I mice displayed receptor editing when the high-affinity self-Ag was expressed in cortical epithelial cells (cEC) using the human keratin 14 promoter. To test the hypothesis that receptor editing is a consequence of a unique instruction given by cEC presenting self-Ag, we created mice expressing the 2C and HY ligands under control of the keratin 14 promoter. Alternatively, we studied the fate of developing T cells in OT-I mice where Ag was presented by all thymic APC. Surprisingly, we found that the tolerance mechanism was not influenced by the APC subset involved in presentation. Clonal deletion was observed in 2C and HY models even when Ag was presented only by cEC; and receptor editing was observed in OT-I mice even when Ag was presented by all thymic APC. These results suggest that different TCRs show intrinsic differences in thymic tolerance mechanism.     

In vivo suppression of naive CD4 T cell responses by IL-2- and antigen-stimulated T lymphocytes in the absence of APC competition

After stimulation, T cells enter a transient refractory period, promoted by IL-2, during which they are resistant to re-stimulation. We previously demonstrated that these IL-2- and Ag-stimulated refractory T cells are able to suppress the Ag-induced proliferation of naive T cells in vitro. We show here that, after adoptive transfer, these T cells are also able to suppress naive T cell proliferation in vivo. More interestingly, potently suppressive T cells can be generated directly in vivo by stimulation with Ag and supplemental IL-2. The activity of the suppressive cells is dose dependent, and the suppressor and suppressed T cells need not be restricted to the same MHC or Ag. Similar to its role in promoting T cell-mediated suppression in vitro, IL-2 is critical for the induction of suppressive activity in activated T cells in vivo. Supplemental IL-2, however, cannot overcome the suppressive activity in target T cells, indicating that suppression is not mediated by competition for this cytokine. Although the activated T cells block naive T cell proliferation, the naive cells do engage Ag and up-regulate the CD25 and CD69 activation markers after stimulation. Therefore, activated T cells stimulated in the presence of IL-2 develop MHC- and Ag-unrestricted suppressive activity. These results provide a new mechanism for competition among CD4(+) T lymphocytes, in which initial waves of responding T cells may inhibit subsequently recruited naive T cells. They further suggest a novel negative feedback loop limiting the expansion of T cell responses that may be present during vigorous immune responses or after IL-2 immunotherapy.     

CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells facilitate CD4+ T cell clonal anergy induction during the recovery from lymphopenia

T cell clonal anergy induction in lymphopenic nu/nu mice was found to be ineffective. Exposure to a tolerizing peptide Ag regimen instead induced aggressive CD4(+) cell cycle progression and increased Ag responsiveness (priming). Reconstitution of T cell-deficient mice by an adoptive transfer of mature peripheral lymphocytes was accompanied by the development of a CD25(+)Foxp3(+)CTLA-4(+)CD4(+) regulatory T cell population that acted to dampen Ag-driven cell cycle progression and facilitate the induction of clonal anergy in nearby responder CD25(-)CD4(+) T cells. Thus, an early recovery of CD25(+) regulatory T cells following a lymphopenic event can prevent exuberant Ag-stimulated CD4(+) cell cycle progression and promote the development of clonal anergy.     

Oral administration of myelin basic protein is superior to myelin in suppressing established relapsing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Oral administration of a myelin component, myelin basic protein (MBP), induces immunological unresponsiveness to CNS Ags and ameliorates murine relapsing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (REAE). However, a recent clinical trial in which multiple sclerosis patients were treated with repeated doses of oral myelin was unsuccessful in reducing disease exacerbations. Therefore, we directly compared the tolerizing capacity of myelin vs MBP during REAE in B10.PL mice. Oral administration of high doses of myelin, either before disease induction or during REAE, did not provide protection from disease or decrease in vitro T cell responses. In contrast, repeated oral administration of high doses of MBP suppressed established disease and MBP-specific T cell proliferation and cytokine responses. The frequency of IL-2-, IFN-gamma-, and IL-5-secreting MBP-specific T cells declined with MBP feeding, implicating anergy and/or deletion as the mechanism(s) of oral tolerance after high Ag doses. We have previously shown that the dosage and timing of Ag administration are critical parameters in oral tolerance induction. Studies presented here demonstrate that Ag homogeneity is also important, i.e., homogeneous Ag (MBP) is more effective at inducing oral tolerance than heterogeneous Ag (myelin).