Evaluation of Restoration Techniques for the Succulent Karoo, South Africa

Abstract Possible constraints on the passive recovery of bare areas in the Karoo, a semiarid region in South Africa, include inadequate supply of seed, availability of suitable microsites for plant establishment, altered soil properties, and the truncation of key soil biotic processes. Here we investigate the possibility of initiating the restoration of bare areas by soil surface treatments with gypsum (CaSO₄) and/or organic mulch. We also apply an exogenous seed source to test the hypothesis that seed availability limits autogenic recovery. Both gypsum and mulch improved rain water infiltration, gypsum more so than mulch, and both treatments resulted in significantly higher numbers of reseeded seedlings compared with controls. Gypsum also improved the survival of the cohorts of seedlings of the larger seeded Tripteris sinuata. Tripteris showed the highest number of seedlings (maximum count of 150 seedlings/1,000 viable seeds sown) and surviving plants of the three reseeded species, which included two small‐seeded species, Ruschia spinosa and Chaetobromus dregeanus. Throughout the study period significantly higher plant volumes of naturally seeded annuals and perennials were recorded in the gypsum and/or mulch treatments compared with the controls. Germination and emergence of reseeded and naturally seeded plants appears to be determined by the availability of cool season (autumn to spring ) soil moisture, whereas follow‐up rainfall during this time is important for plant survival. Mulching of bare areas in the Succulent Karoo has the potential to re‐create vegetated areas that will further capture and conserve water, soil, and nutrients. Gypsum also showed positive results but might not be a cost‐effective option because of transport costs to these remote arid areas.     

Allelopathic and intraspecific growth competition effects establishment of direct sown Miscanthus

High yielding perennial crops are being developed as a sustainable feedstock for renewable energy and bioproducts. Miscanthus is a leading biomass crop, but most plantations comprise a sterile hybrid Miscanthus × giganteus that is clonally propagated. To develop new varieties across large areas, rhizome cloning is inefficient, time consuming and expensive. Alternative approaches use seed, and in temperate regions, this has been successfully applied by raising seedlings as plug plants in glasshouses before transfer to the field. Direct sowing has yet to be proven commercially viable because poor germination has resulted in inconsistent stand establishment. Oversowing using seed clusters is a common approach to improve the establishment of crops and it was hypothesized that such an approach will improve uniformity of density in early Miscanthus stands and thereby improve yield. Sowing multiple seeds creates potential for new interactions, and we identified at least two inhibitory mechanisms related to seed numbers. Germinating seed produced allelopathic effects on nearby seed thereby inhibiting plant growth. The inhibitory effect of Miscanthus seed on germination percentages was related to seed number within clusters. An extract from germinating Miscanthus seed inhibited the germination of Miscanthus seed. The extract was analysed by HPLC, which identified a complex mixture including several known allelopathic compounds including proanthocyanidins and vanillic acid. There was also evidence of root competition in soil in a controlled environment experiment. When the experiment on competition was replicated at field scale, the establishment rates were much lower and there was evidence of shoot competition. We conclude that the numbers of seed required to ensure an acceptable level of establishment in the field may be economically impractical until other agronomic techniques are included either to reduce the inhibitory effects of higher seed numbers or to reduce oversowing rates.     

Comparative assessment of ecosystem C exchange in Miscanthus and reed canary grass during early establishment

Land‐use change to bioenergy crop production can contribute towards addressing the dual challenges of greenhouse gas mitigation and energy security. Realisation of the mitigation potential of bioenergy crops is, however, dependent on suitable crop selection and full assessment of the carbon (C) emissions associated with land conversion. Using eddy covariance‐based estimates, ecosystem C exchange was studied during the early‐establishment phase of two perennial crops, C₃ reed canary grass (RCG) and C₄ Miscanthus, planted on former grassland in Ireland. Crop development was the main determinant of net carbon exchange in the Miscanthus crop, restricting significant net C uptake during the first 2 years of establishment. The Miscanthus ecosystem switched from being a net C source in the conversion year to a strong net C sink (?411 ± 63 g C m^?2) in the third year, driven by significant above‐ground growth and leaf expansion. For RCG, early establishment and rapid canopy development facilitated a net C sink in the first 2 years of growth (?319 ± 57 (post‐planting) and ?397 ± 114 g C m^?2, respectively). Peak seasonal C uptake occurred three months earlier in RCG (May) than Miscanthus (August), however Miscanthus sustained net C uptake longer into the autumn and was close to C‐neutral in winter. Leaf longevity is therefore a key advantage of C₄ Miscanthus in temperate climates. Further increases in productivity are projected as Miscanthus reaches maturity and are likely to further enhance the C sink potential of Miscanthus relative to RCG.     

Soil N2O emissions with different reduced tillage methods during the establishment of Miscanthus in temperate grassland

An increase in renewable energy and the planting of perennial bioenergy crops is expected in order to meet global greenhouse gas (GHG) targets. Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is a potent greenhouse gas, and this paper addresses a knowledge gap concerning soil N₂O emissions over the possible “hot spot” of land use conversion from established pasture to the biofuel crop Miscanthus. The work aims to quantify the impacts of this land use change on N₂O fluxes using three different cultivation methods. Three replicates of four treatments were established: Miscanthus x giganteus (Mxg) planted without tillage; Mxg planted with light tillage; a novel seed‐based Miscanthus hybrid planted with light tillage under bio‐degradable mulch film; and a control of uncultivated established grass pasture with sheep grazing. Soil N₂O fluxes were recorded every 2 weeks using static chambers starting from preconversion in April 2016 and continuing until the end of October 2017. Monthly soil samples were also taken and analysed for nitrate and ammonium. There was no significant difference in N₂O emissions between the different cultivation methods. However, in comparison with the uncultivated pasture, N₂O emissions from the cultivated Miscanthus plots were 550%–819% higher in the first year (April to December 2016) and 469%–485% higher in the second year (January to October 2017). When added to an estimated carbon cost for production over a 10 year crop lifetime (including crop management, harvest, and transportation), the measured N₂O conversion cost of 4.13 Mg CO₂‐eq./ha represents a 44% increase in emission compared to the base case. This paper clearly shows the need to incorporate N₂O fluxes during Miscanthus establishment into assessments of GHG balances and life cycle analysis and provides vital knowledge needed for this process. This work therefore also helps to support policy decisions regarding the costs and benefits of land use change to Miscanthus.     

一株地膜降解真菌的筛选及其降解性能分析

【目的】分离并鉴定具有聚乙烯材料降解能力的微生物菌株,探究其降解农用地膜的效能,为地膜的微生物降解途径提供支撑。【方法】以线性低密度聚乙烯粉末为唯一碳源的培养物中分离出1株具有降解聚乙烯材料能力的真菌,利用分子生物学方法结合菌株的培养性状对该菌株进行鉴定,通过观察聚乙烯粉末降解情况和测定地膜失重率,结合红外扫描、高分辨场发射扫描电子显微镜分析该菌株对农用地膜的降解效果。【结果】筛选获得1株具有农用地膜降解效果的真菌菌株PT1,经鉴定为桔青霉(Penicillium citrinum),桔青霉PT1菌株能以重均分子量(Mw)2000和400000的聚乙烯粉末作为唯一碳源生长,经红外扫描、电镜观察发现桔青霉PT1可侵蚀传统聚乙烯地膜。桔青霉PT1能快速利用聚酯类生物降解地膜生长,35 d地膜失重率达50%左右。【结论】本文筛选到具有地膜降解特性的桔青霉PT1真菌,丰富了降解聚乙烯材料的微生物类群,同时也为废弃农用地膜的处理提供了环保的处理途径。     

Measured and modelled effect of land‐use change from temperate grassland to Miscanthus on soil carbon stocks after 12 years

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is an important carbon pool susceptible to land‐use change (LUC). There are concerns that converting grasslands into the C₄ bioenergy crop Miscanthus (to meet demands for renewable energy) could negatively impact SOC, resulting in reductions of greenhouse gas mitigation benefits gained from using Miscanthus as a fuel. This work addresses these concerns by sampling soils (0–30 cm) from a site 12 years (T₁₂) after conversion from marginal agricultural grassland into Miscanthus x giganteus and four other novel Miscanthus hybrids. Soil samples were analysed for changes in below‐ground biomass, SOC and Miscanthus contribution to SOC (using a ¹³C natural abundance approach). Findings are compared to ECOSSE soil carbon model results (run for a LUC from grassland to Miscanthus scenario and continued grassland counterfactual), and wider implications are considered in the context of life cycle assessments based on the heating value of the dry matter (DM) feedstock. The mean T₁₂ SOC stock at the site was 8 (±1 standard error) Mg C/ha lower than baseline time zero stocks (T₀), with assessment of the five individual hybrids showing that while all had lower SOC stock than at T₀ the difference was only significant for a single hybrid. Over the longer term, new Miscanthus C₄ carbon replaces pre‐existing C₃ carbon, though not at a high enough rate to completely offset losses by the end of year 12. At the end of simulated crop lifetime (15 years), the difference in SOC stocks between the two scenarios was 4 Mg C/ha (5 g CO₂‐eq/MJ). Including modelled LUC‐induced SOC loss, along with carbon costs relating to soil nitrous oxide emissions, doubled the greenhouse gas intensity of Miscanthus to give a total global warming potential of 10 g CO₂‐eq/MJ (180 kg CO₂‐eq/Mg DM).     

Effects of Mulch on Seedlings and Soil on a Closed Landfill

Landfills are ideal locations for short‐rotation forestry, tree‐based bioremediation, and wildlife habitat reconstruction. However, tree survival is reduced by harsh growing conditions and poor soil quality. This study was designed to determine survival of tree seedlings and test effects of different mulch types and depths on edaphic properties and herb emergence on a closed Ohio landfill. In spring 2002, five species of hardwood tree seedlings (Fraxinus pennsylvanica, Robinia pseudoacacia, Prunus serotina, Quercus macrocarpa, and Populus sp.) were planted in a clustered fashion on 35 plots. Each plot received a mulch treatment consisting of one type of mulch (hardwood, leaf, or mixed) at a specific depth (5 or 15 cm) or was designated as a nonmulched control. The status of each seedling and edaphic qualities (soil moisture, temperature, and nutrients) were recorded for two growing seasons. Aboveground herbaceous biomass was sampled at the end of each growing season. We found that survival and growth were species dependent. At the conclusion of the experiment, Fraxinus had the highest survival rate (70%) and Prunus the lowest (7%). The use of leaf mulch (15 cm deep) increased organic matter and various edaphic properties (cation exchange capacity, P, Mg) after the second growing season. Mulch treatments did not significantly affect aboveground herbaceous biomass when compared to nonmulched controls. These results suggest Fraxinus as a good candidate for landfill plantings. Additionally, leaves and yard waste are plentiful and could quickly enrich poor soils on a landfill if left to decompose aboveground.     

Suitability of the biomass crop Miscanthus sinensis as a host for the aphids Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) and Rhopalosiphum maidis (F.), and its susceptibility to the plant luteovirus Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus

1 The reproductive performance of two aphid pest species, Rhopalosiphum padi and Rhopalosiphum maidis, was investigated on two seedling growth stages of Miscanthus sinensis, rhizomatous M. sinensis‘Giganteus’ and barley. Rhopalosiphum padi was unable to complete its development on Miscanthus. Rhopalosiphum maidis was most fecund on rhizomatous plants compared with seedling stages. 2 The ability of R. maidis to transmit the RPV isolate of Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV) to M. sinensis seedlings was further investigated. Following successful transmission, host plant symptomology and the effect of infection on the yield of Miscanthus were investigated. Total above soil biomass was reduced by around 23% following infection. 3 The inability of R. padi to utilize Miscanthus is reviewed in light of this species’ origin and inability to utilize C₄ host plants. 4 The potential pest status of R. maidis on Miscanthus is discussed together with the impact that Miscanthus cultivation could have on the ecology of this aphid species and BYDV in the U.K.     

Agronomic factors in the establishment of tetraploid seeded Miscanthus × giganteus

To meet US renewable fuel mandates, perennial grasses have been identified as important potential feedstocks for processing into biofuels. Triploid Miscanthus × giganteus, a sterile, rhizomatous grass, has proven to be a high‐yielding biomass crop over the past few decades in the European Union and, more recently, in the United States. However, high establishment costs from rhizomes are a limitation to more widespread plantings without government subsidies. A recently developed tetraploid cultivar of M. × giganteus producing viable seeds (seeded miscanthus) shows promise in producing high yields with reduced establishment costs. Field experiments were conducted in Urbana, Illinois from 2011 to 2013 to optimize seeded miscanthus establishment by comparing seeding rates (10, 20, and 40 seeds m^?2) and planting methods (drilling seeds at 38 and 76 cm row spacing vs. hydroseeding with and without premoistened seeds) under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Drought conditions in 2011 and 2012 coincided with stand establishment failure under rainfed conditions, suggesting that seeded miscanthus may not establish well in water‐stressed environments. In irrigated plots, hydroseeding without premoistening was significantly better than hydroseeding with premoistening, drilling at 38 cm and drilling at 76 cm with respect to plant number (18%, 54%, and 59% higher, respectively), plant frequency (13%, 30%, and 40% better, respectively), and the rate of canopy closure (18%, 33%, and 43% faster, respectively) when averaged across seeding rates. However, differences in second‐year biomass yields among treatments were less pronounced, as plant size partially compensated for plant density. Both hydroseeding and drilling at rates of 20 or 40 seeds m^?2 appear to be viable planting options for establishing seeded miscanthus provided sufficient soil moisture, but additional strategies are required for this new biomass production system under rainfed conditions.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Melilotus officinalis</Emphasis> (yellow sweetclover) causes large changes in community and ecosystem processes in both the presence and absence of a cover crop

Non-native species are hypothesized to decrease native species establishment and cover crops are hypothesized to decrease non-native species abundance. Although many studies have compared invaded to non-invaded habitats, relatively few studies have experimentally added non-native species to directly examine their effects. In a greenhouse mesocosm experiment, we tested the effects of non-native forbs (Melilotus officinalis, Verbascum thapsus, and Lespedeza cuneata), a proposed C₃ grass cover crop (Pascopyrum smithii), and a commonly seeded non-native C₃ grass (Bromus inermis) on the establishment of target native C₄ prairie grass species. All treatments contained the same seed density of target C₄ species and were begun on bare soil collected from the field. The legume M. officinalis strongly decreased the abundance of all other species, species diversity, and light and soil moisture levels. Surprisingly, M. officinalis took up relatively large amounts of labeled nitrogen (¹⁵N) from the soil early in its development, but M. officinalis fixed nitrogen, thus increasing nitrogen in biomass nearly fivefold by the end of the study. We found few effects of either C₃ grass species on non-native forbs or C₄ target species, but seeded P. smithii did increase species diversity. Non-native plants therefore impeded native C₄ grass establishment through long-lasting effects of target species seedbank depletion (death of most target seedlings) and altered nutrient availability. The effects of M. officinalis were not reduced by the presence of a cover crop.     

Yield performance of 14 novel inter- and intra-species Miscanthus hybrids across Europe

Miscanthus, a C4 perennial rhizomatous grass from Asia is a leading candidate for the supply of sustainable biomass needed to grow the bioeconomy. European Miscanthus breeding programmes have recently produced a new range of seeded hybrids with the objective of increasing scalability to large acreages limited by current clonal propagation. For the EU-GRACE project, new replicated field trials were established in seven locations across Europe in 2018 with eight intraspecific M. sinensis hybrids (sin × sin) and six M. sacchariflorus × M. sinensis (sac × sin) from Dutch and UK breeding programmes, respectively, with clonal Miscanthus × giganteus. The planting density of the sin × sin was double that of sac × sin (30,000 & 15,000 plants ha⁻¹), creating commercially relevant upscaling comparisons between systems. Over the first 3 years, the establishment depended on location and hybrid. The mature sin × sin hybrids formed tight tufts of shoots up to 2.5 m tall which flower and senesce earlier than the taller sac × sin hybrids. Following the third growing season, the highest yields were recorded in Northern Italy at a low altitude (average 13.7 (max 21) Mg DM ha⁻¹) and the lowest yielding was on the industrially damaged marginal land site in Northern France (average 7.0 (max 10) Mg DM ha⁻¹). Moisture contents at spring harvest were lowest in Croatia (21.7%) and highest in Wales, UK (41.6%). Overall, lower moisture contents at harvest, which are highly desirable for transport, storage and for most end-use applications, were found in sin × sin hybrids than sac × sin (30% and 40%, respectively). Yield depended on climate interactions with the hybrid and their associated planting systems. The sin × sin hybrids appeared better adapted to northern Europe and sac × sin hybrids to southern Europe. Longer-term yield observations over crop lifespans will be needed to explore the biological (yield persistence) and economic costs and benefits of the different hybrid systems.     

Thermal requirements for seed germination in Miscanthus compared with Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinaceae), Maize (Zea mays) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne)

The high establishment costs of Miscanthus by clonal propagation are a barrier to widespread deployment. Direct sowing is the cheapest method, but limited field trials have given generally poor results. Miscanthus, a perennial grass with C₄ photosynthesis has tropical origins, but is found growing both at high latitudes (>40°) and altitudes (>1000 m) in Asia. In this paper, we investigate if significant variation in the thermal requirements for germination exist in 10 Miscanthus sinensis half‐sib families and compare these with Panicum virgatum (Switchgrass – Trailblazer), Phalaris arundinaceae (Reed canary grass – P10) and Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass cv AberDart) and maize (Zea mays cv Aviso). The comparisons were made on a thermal gradient bar with a controlled temperature oscillating ± 5 °C on a 12 h cycle and germination was monitored daily for 35 days at mean temperatures ranging from 5.3 to 26.5 °C. Base temperatures were calculated below which germination of at least 50% of viable seeds ceased. Base temperatures were lowest for L. perenne and Zea mays at 3.4 and 4.5 °C respectively; for different Miscanthus half‐sib families base temperatures ranged between 9.7 and 11.6 °C and these were higher than maize and switchgrass which share C₄ photosynthesis with Miscanthus. Parameters derived from germination and temperature were used to predict germination patterns in Europe based on historical climate data. We predict that seed establishment of Miscanthus in spring time is unlikely to be viable in Northern Europe under present climatic conditions without crop management practices aimed at raising soil temperature, and that useful variation in thermal requirement for germination in Miscanthus is available which should facilitate seed germination in other regions.     

Assessing seed priming,sowing date,and mulch film to improve the germination and survival of direct‐sown Miscanthus sinensis in the United Kingdom

Direct sowing of Miscanthus seed could lower crop establishment costs, and increase the rate of grower uptake and biomass supply for the emerging bio‐economy. A replicated field trial was conducted at two contrasting UK sites: Aberystwyth (ABR) in mid‐Wales and Blankney (BLK) in Lincolnshire. These sites encompass the west–east meteorological gradient in the United Kingdom where the growing season at ABR is cooler and wetter while BLK is warmer and drier. Primed and unprimed Miscanthus sinensis seeds were sown directly onto the soil surface with and without a clear biodegradable mulch film, at nine dates interspersed from May to October. Average daily mean soil surface temperatures measured over the first 2 months after sowing under the mulch film were higher than control plots (2.7°C ABR and 4.2°C BLK). At both sites, the film covering also affected soil volumetric moisture relative to uncovered control plots (?3% ABR and 8% BLK), demonstrating the negative impact of mulch film when sowing on dry soil. Over nine sowings, seed germination at ABR under film varied between ?28% and +18% of germination under control conditions. Seedlings from the first three sowings at both sites under film had sufficient physiological maturity to survive the first winter period. At BLK, mulch film significantly increased tiller count and height in both the first and second years after sowing. At ABR, where temperatures were lower, film covering significantly increased tiller height but not count. Water priming had no significant effect on seed viability or germination in the field tests. Base temperatures for germination of primed and unprimed seeds on a thermal gradient plate were 7.0°C and 5.7°C, respectively, with a ± 1.7°C confidence interval. Based on our results for M. sinensis in the United Kingdom, we recommend the sowing of unprimed seed in May under film and only when the soil is moist.     

Fitness of natural willow hybrids in a pioneer mosaic hybrid zone

Hybrid fitness is an important parameter to predict the evolutionary consequences of a hybridization event and to characterize hybrid zones. We studied fitness parameters of F₁ and later‐generation hybrids between the lowland species Salix purpurea and the alpine S. helvetica that have recently emerged during colonization of an alpine glacier forefield. Fruit production (number of capsules per catkin and fruit set) did not differ between hybrids and parents, but the number of seeds per capsule of F₁ hybrids was slightly lower than that of later‐generation hybrids and of the parents. Germination rates and seedling growth were tested on three substrates (pH 4.5, 7.0, and 8.0). Germination rates of seeds collected from F₁ hybrids were lower on acid and neutral substrates, but equal at pH 8.0 compared to all other groups, while the seeds from later‐generation hybrids performed as well as the parents on all three substrates. In seedling growth, the colonizer S. purpurea performed better than all other taxa on all three substrates, while hybrids resembled the subalpine species S. helvetica. Results suggest that endogenous selection acts against F₁ hybrids, but favors fitter genotypes in later‐generation hybrids. Exogenous selection via soil pH appears to be weak during seedling establishment. The pioneer vegetation on the glacier forefield may offer sufficient niche space for hybrid seedlings. Owing to the relatively high fitness of the hybrids and the scattered distribution of hybrids and parental individuals on the glacier forefield, this hybrid zone can be assigned to a mosaic model, probably facilitating gene flow and introgression between the parental species. As establishment of the hybrid zone appears to be linked to a colonization process, we propose to call it a pioneer mosaic hybrid zone.     

Land use change from C3 grassland to C4 Miscanthus: effects on soil carbon content and estimated mitigation benefit after six years

To date, most Miscanthus trials and commercial fields have been planted on arable land. Energy crops will need to be grown more on lower grade lands unsuitable for arable crops. Grasslands represent a major land resource for energy crops. In grasslands, where soil organic carbon (SOC) levels can be high, there have been concerns that the carbon mitigation benefits of bioenergy from Miscanthus could be offset by losses in SOC associated with land use change. At a site in Wales (UK), we quantified the relatively short‐term impacts (6 years) of four novel Miscanthus hybrids and Miscanthus × giganteus on SOC in improved grassland. After 6 years, using stable carbon isotope ratios (¹³C/¹²C), the amount of Miscanthus derived C (C4) in total SOC was considerable (ca. 12%) and positively correlated to belowground biomass of different hybrids. Nevertheless, significant changes in SOC stocks (0–30 cm) were not detected as C4 Miscanthus carbon replaced the initial C3 grassland carbon; however, initial SOC decreased more in the presence of higher belowground biomass. We ascribed this apparently contradictory result to the rhizosphere priming effect triggered by easily available C sources. Observed changes in SOC partitioning were modelled using the RothC soil carbon turnover model and projected for 20 years showing that there is no significant change in SOC throughout the anticipated life of a Miscanthus crop. We interpret our observations to mean that the new labile C from Miscanthus has replaced the labile C from the grassland and, therefore, planting Miscanthus causes an insignificant change in soil organic carbon. The overall C mitigation benefit is therefore not decreased by depletion of soil C and is due to substitution of fossil fuel by the aboveground biomass, in this instance 73–108 Mg C ha^?1 for the lowest and highest yielding hybrids, respectively, after 6 years.     

Plant morphology,genome size,and SSR markers differentiate five distinct taxonomic groups among accessions in the genus Miscanthus

Information on genome size, ploidy level, and genomic polymorphisms among accessions of the genus Miscanthus can assist in taxonomic studies, help understand the evolution of the genus, and provide valuable information to biomass crop improvement programs. Taxonomic investigation combining variation in plant morphology, genome size, chromosome numbers, and simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker polymorphisms were applied to characterize 101 Miscanthus accessions. A total of 258 amplicons generated from 17 informative SSR primer pairs was subjected to cluster and principal coordinate analysis and used to characterize genetic variation and relationships among 31 Miscanthus accessions, including four interspecific Miscanthus hybrids created from controlled pollinations, and four Saccharum, six Erianthus, and one Sorghum bicolor accessions. Miscanthus accessions were distinct from accessions in the genera Erianthus and Saccharum. Miscanthus accessions fell into five taxonomic groups, including the existing taxonomic section Miscanthus, diploid and tetraploid Miscanthus sacchariflorus, and a fourth (M. × giganteus) and fifth group (Miscanthus ‘purpurascens’); the last two being intermediate forms. In contrast to previous work, our findings suggest diploid and tetraploid M. sacchariflorus are taxonomically different, the latter more closely related to M. sacchariflorus var lutarioriparius. We also suggest that Miscanthus ‘purpurascens’ accessions are interspecific hybrids between Miscanthus sinensis and diploid M. sacchariflorus based on DNA content and SSR polymorphisms. The evolution of Miscanthus and related genera is discussed based on combined analysis and geographical origin.     

Soil carbon changes under Miscanthus driven by C4 accumulation and C3 decompostion – toward a default sequestration function

Bioenergy has to meet increasing sustainability criteria in the EU putting conventional bioenergy crops under pressure. Alternatively, perennial bioenergy crops, such as Miscanthus, show higher greenhouse gas savings with similarly high energy yields. In addition, Miscanthus plantations may sequester additional soil organic carbon (SOC) to mitigate climate change. As the land‐use change in cropland to Miscanthus involves a C₃‐C₄ vegetation change (VC), it is possible to determine the dynamic of Miscanthus‐derived SOC (C₄ carbon) and of the old SOC (C₃ carbon) by the isotopic ratio of ¹³C to ¹²C. We sampled six croplands and adjacent Miscanthus plantations exceeding the age of 10 years across Europe. We found a mean C₄ carbon sequestration rate of 0.78 ± 0.19 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1, which increased with mean annual temperature. At three of six sites, we found a significant increase in C₃ carbon due to the application of organic fertilizers or difference in baseline SOC, which we define as non‐VC‐induced SOC changes. The Rothamsted Carbon Model was used to disentangle the decomposition of old C₃ carbon and the non‐VC‐induced C₃ carbon changes. Subsequently, this method was applied to eight more sites from the literature, resulting in a climate‐dependent VC‐induced SOC sequestration rate (0.40 ± 0.20 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1), as a step toward a default SOC change function for Miscanthus plantations on former croplands in Europe. Furthermore, we conducted a SOC fractionation to assess qualitative SOC changes and the incorporation of C₄ carbon into the soil. Sixteen years after Miscanthus establishment, 68% of the particulate organic matter (POM) was Miscanthus‐derived in 0–10 cm depth. POM was thus the fastest cycling SOC fraction with a C₄ carbon accumulation rate of 0.33 ± 0.05 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1. Miscanthus‐derived SOC also entered the NaOCl‐resistant fraction, comprising 12% in 0–10 cm, which indicates that this fraction was not an inert SOC pool.     

Halophyte and glycophyte salt tolerance at germination and the establishment of halophyte shrubs in saline environments

Saline sites suffer variations in surface salinity, available soil water, temperature, soil crust strength and other factors which can influence germination and establishment. For establishment to occur the germinating seed must capitalise on a window of opportunity. This window can be widened by placing seeds in a low-salt niche, covering the seeds with a mulch (such as vermiculite), spraying the seed and mulch placement with a coating which may stabilise the favourable situation and raise soil temperature. In this paper it is shown that using seeds collected from plants of Atriplex amnicola which produce many volunteer seedlings in their vicinity can assist establishment from direct seeding. These seeds had the ability to germinate under saltier and cooler conditions than seeds from A. amnicola bushes which did not produce volunteers. Seeds of a halophyte (Atriplex lentiformis) and a non-halophyte (Medicago sativa) are able to imbibe water from a saline substrate in a similar manner. The water enables the seeds of both species to mobilise stored growth materials and produce and elongate radicles. When the seedlings try to erect a hypocotyl and spread their cotyledons, the non-halophyte, in a saline medium, becomes flaccid, distorted and dies. The halophyte seedling shows evidence of high salt tolerance in the form of succulence of cotyledons and trichomes on true leaves even before they are visible and goes on to successfully develop a functioning plant. Nevertheless, germination of halophyte seeds is inhibited or severely reduced at salinity levels above 250 mM NaCl and slowed and reduced progressively up to those levels.     

Allometric relationships between seed mass and seedling characteristics reveal trade-offs for neotropical gap-dependent species

A seed size–seed number trade-off exists because smaller seeds are produced in greater number but have a lower probability of establishment. This reduced establishment success of smaller-seeded species may be determined by biophysical constraints imposed by scaling rules. Root and shoot diameter, root growth extension rate (R _GER) and shoot length at death for dark-grown seedlings are predicted to scale with the cube root of seed embryo and endosperm mass (m). We confirmed this expectation for ten neotropical gap-dependent tree species with an embryo and endosperm dry mass >1 mg. However, for nine smaller seeded species (m < 1 mg) with photoblastic germination, root and shoot diameters were larger than expected, and consequently, R _GER was slower than expected. The maximum shoot thrust of seedlings from seeds with masses ≥1 mg was comparable to the estimated force required to displace overlying litter, supporting the hypothesis that photoblastic behaviour only occurs in seeds with insufficient shoot thrust to displace overlying leaves. Using the model soil water, energy and transpiration to predict soil drying in small and large gaps, we showed that: (1) gaps that receive a significant amount of direct sunlight will dry more quickly than small gaps that do not, (2) compared to the wet-season, soil that is already dry at depth (i.e. the dry-season) will dry faster after rainfall (this drying would most likely kill seedlings from small seeds) and (3) even during the wet-season, dry periods of a few days in large gaps can kill shallow-rooted seedlings. We conclude that the smaller the seed, the more vulnerable its seedling would be to both covering by litter and soil drying because it can only emerge from shallow depths and has a slow R _GER. Consequently, we suggest that these allometrically related factors contribute to the reduced establishment success of smaller-seeded species that underpins the seed size–seed number trade-off.     

A Germination and Establishment Field Trial of Themeda australis (Kangaroo Grass) for Mine Site Restoration in the Central Tablelands of New South Wales

The current study demonstrated that Themeda australis (R. Br.) Stapf (kangaroo grass), a major understory component of the original grassy Box woodlands in the Central Tablelands of New South Wales, was suitable for use in large‐scale mine rehabilitation. The results of the trial were applied in the mine rehabilitation program. Due to extensive clearing of the woodlands and the introduction of exotic flora and fauna for agriculture, only small remnants of the original flora remain. The final land use of the gold mine is a conservation area free from agricultural pressure. Local native species adapted to the soil conditions and variable climate are highly desirable for the control of soil erosion following mining. Germination and establishment of T. australis on oxidized overburden were examined over 53 weeks. Seed‐bearing mulch was used as both the seeding material and an organic additive to the overburden. The effects of five factors were investigated: time since soil preparation, position within small contour banks, location of contour on experimental slopes, additional water, and rate of seed/mulch application. Direct seeding using the lowest rate of mulch application resulted in the establishment of more T. australis seedlings on new contours than on 15‐month‐old contours. The provision of additional water increased germination and establishment in both old and new contours, but was not essential. Seedling densities were greatest in the middle positions of contour banks up to week seven, but were destroyed during a heavy storm. At the close of the experiment, seedling densities were greater in the top and bottom positions of contours. Although significant slope × rate and age × slope interactions occurred, SNK tests did not reveal any consistent interpretable results.