Oxidant-impaired intracellular Ca2+ signaling in pancreatic acinar cells: role of the plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase

Pancreatitis is an inflammatory disease of pancreatic acinar cells whereby intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) signaling and enzyme secretion are impaired. Increased oxidative stress has been suggested to mediate the associated cell injury. The present study tested the effects of the oxidant, hydrogen peroxide, on [Ca²⁺]_i signaling in rat pancreatic acinar cells by simultaneously imaging fura-2, to measure [Ca²⁺]_i, and dichlorofluorescein, to measure oxidative stress. Millimolar concentrations of hydrogen peroxide increased cellular oxidative stress and irreversibly increased [Ca²⁺]_i, which was sensitive to antioxidants and removal of external Ca²⁺, and ultimately led to cell lysis. Responses were also abolished by pretreatment with (sarco)endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibitors, unless cells were prestimulated with cholecystokinin to promote mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake. This suggests that hydrogen peroxide promotes Ca²⁺ release from the endoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria and that it promotes Ca²⁺ influx. Lower concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (10–100 µM) increased [Ca²⁺]_i and altered cholecystokinin-evoked [Ca²⁺]_i oscillations with marked heterogeneity, the severity of which was directly related to oxidative stress, suggesting differences in cellular antioxidant capacity. These changes in [Ca²⁺]_i also upregulated the activity of the plasma membrane Ca²⁺-ATPase in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner, whereas higher concentrations (0.1–1 mM) inactivated the plasma membrane Ca²⁺-ATPase. This may be important in facilitating "Ca²⁺ overload," resulting in cell injury associated with pancreatitis. oxidant stress; pancreatitis; calcium pump     

Integration of rapid cytosolic Ca2+ signals by mitochondria in cat ventricular myocytes

Decoding of fast cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) transients by mitochondria was studied in permeabilized cat ventricular myocytes. Mitochondrial [Ca²⁺] ([Ca²⁺]_m) was measured with fluo-3 trapped inside mitochondria after removal of cytosolic indicator by plasma membrane permeabilization with digitonin. Elevation of extramitochondrial [Ca²⁺] ([Ca²⁺]_em) to >0.5 µM resulted in a [Ca²⁺]_em-dependent increase in the rate of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ accumulation ([Ca²⁺]_em resulting in half-maximal rate of Ca²⁺ accumulation = 4.4 µM) via Ca²⁺ uniporter. Ca²⁺ uptake was sensitive to the Ca²⁺ uniporter blocker ruthenium red and the protonophore carbonyl cyanide p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone and depended on inorganic phosphate concentration. The rates of [Ca²⁺]_m increase and recovery were dependent on the extramitochondrial [Na⁺] ([Na⁺]_em) due to Ca²⁺ extrusion via mitochondrial Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger. The maximal rate of Ca²⁺ extrusion was observed with [Na⁺]_em in the range of 20–40 mM. Rapid switching (0.25–1 Hz) of [Ca²⁺]_em between 0 and 100 µM simulated rapid beat-to-beat changes in [Ca²⁺]_i (with [Ca²⁺]_i transient duration of 100–500 ms). No [Ca²⁺]_m oscillations were observed, either under conditions of maximal rate of Ca²⁺ uptake (100 µM [Ca²⁺]_em, 0 [Na⁺]_em) or with maximal rate of Ca²⁺ removal (0 [Ca²⁺]_em, 40 mM [Na⁺]_em). The slow frequency-dependent increase of [Ca²⁺]_m argues against a rapid transmission of Ca²⁺ signals between cytosol and mitochondria on a beat-to-beat basis in the heart. [Ca²⁺]_m changes elicited by continuous or pulsatile exposure to elevated [Ca²⁺]_em showed no difference in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake. Thus in cardiac myocytes fast [Ca²⁺]_i transients are integrated by mitochondrial Ca²⁺ transport systems, resulting in a frequency-dependent net mitochondrial Ca²⁺ accumulation. mitochondrial Ca²⁺; excitation-contraction coupling; cardiomyocytes     

Polyunsaturated fatty acids mobilize intracellular Ca2+ in NT2 human teratocarcinoma cells by causing release of Ca2+ from mitochondria

In a variety of disorders, overaccumulation of lipid in nonadipose tissues, including the heart, skeletal muscle, kidney, and liver, is associated with deterioration of normal organ function, and is accompanied by excessive plasma and cellular levels of free fatty acids (FA). Increased concentrations of FA may lead to defects in mitochondrial function found in diverse diseases. One of the most important regulators of mitochondrial function is mitochondrial Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_m), which fluctuates in coordination with intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_i). Polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) have been shown to cause [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization albeit by unknown mechanisms. We have found that PUFA but not monounsaturated or saturated FA cause [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization in NT2 human teratocarcinoma cells. Unlike the [Ca²⁺]_i response to the muscarinic G protein-coupled receptor agonist carbachol, PUFA-mediated [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization in NT2 cells is independent of phospholipase C and inositol-1,4,5-trisphospate (IP₃) receptor activation, as well as IP₃-sensitive internal Ca²⁺ stores. Furthermore, PUFA-mediated [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization is inhibited by the mitochondria uncoupler carboxyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrozone. Direct measurements of [Ca²⁺]_m with X-rhod-1 and ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ indicate that PUFA induce Ca²⁺ efflux from mitochondria. Further studies show that ruthenium red, an inhibitor of the mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter, blocks PUFA-induced Ca²⁺ efflux from mitochondria, whereas inhibitors of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore cyclosporin A and bongkrekic acid have no effect. Thus PUFA-gated Ca²⁺ release from mitochondria, possibly via the Ca²⁺ uniporter, appears to be the underlying mechanism for PUFA-induced [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization in NT2 cells. arachidonic acid; mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter; G protein-coupled receptor; IP₃ receptor     

Rat cerebellar granule cells are protected from glutamate-induced excitotoxicity by S-nitrosoglutathione but not glutathione

In cultured rat cerebellar granule cells, glutamate or N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) activation of the NMDA receptor caused a sustained increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels ([Ca²⁺]_i), reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and cell death (respective EC₅₀ values for glutamate were 12, 30, and 38 µM) but no increase in caspase-3 activity. Removal of extracellular Ca²⁺ blocked all three glutamate-induced effects, whereas pretreatment with an ROS scavenger inhibited glutamate-induced cell death but had no effect on the [Ca²⁺]_i increase. This indicates that glutamate-induced cell death is attributable to [Ca²⁺]_i increase and ROS generation, and the [Ca²⁺]_i increase precedes ROS generation. Apoptotic cell death was not seen until 24 h after exposure of cells to glutamate. S-nitrosoglutathione abolished glutamate-induced ROS generation and cell death, and only a transient [Ca²⁺]_i increase was seen; similar results were observed with another nitric oxide (NO) donor, S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine, but not with glutathione, which suggests that the effects were caused by NO. The transient [Ca²⁺]_i increase and the abolishment of ROS generation induced by glutamate and S-nitrosoglutathione were still seen in the presence of an ROS scavenger. Glial cells, which were present in the cultures used, showed no [Ca²⁺]_i increase in the presence of glutamate, and glutamate-induced granule cell death was independent of the percentage of glial cells. In conclusion, NO donors protect cultured cerebellar granule cells from glutamate-induced cell death, which is mediated by ROS generated by a sustained [Ca²⁺]_i increase, and glial cells provide negligible protection against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity. cytosolic calcium concentration; N-methyl-D-aspartate; reactive oxygen species     

Dual effect of thapsigargin on cell death in porcine aortic smooth muscle cells

A sustained increase in the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) can cause cell death. In this study, we found that, in cultured porcine aortic smooth muscle cells, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, triggered by depletion of Ca²⁺ stores by thapsigargin (TG), induced an increase in the [Ca²⁺]_i and cell death. However, the TG-induced death was not related to the [Ca²⁺]_i increase but was mediated by targeting of activated Bax to mitochondria and the opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pores (PTPs). Once the mitochondrial PTPs had opened, several events, including collapse of the mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release, and caspase-3 activation, occurred and the cells died. TG-induced cell death was completely inhibited by the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk and was enhanced by the Ca²⁺ chelator 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA), suggesting the existence of a Ca²⁺-dependent anti-apoptotic mechanism. After TG treatment, Ca²⁺-sensitive mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation was induced and acted as a downstream effector of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase). The protective effect of Z-VAD-fmk on TG-induced cell death was reversed by BAPTA, PD-098059 (an MAPK kinase inhibitor), or LY-294002 (a PI 3-kinase inhibitor). Taken together, our data indicate that ER stress simultaneously activate two pathways, the mitochondrial caspase-dependent death cascade and the Ca²⁺-dependent PI 3-kinase/MAPK anti-apoptotic machinery. The Bax activation and translocation, but not the [Ca²⁺]_i increase, may activate mitochondrial PTPs, which, in turn, causes activation of caspases and cell death, whereas Ca²⁺-dependent MAPK activation counteracts death signaling; removal of Ca²⁺ activated a second caspase-independent death pathway. sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum calcium ion adenosine triphosphatase; cytosolic calcium ion concentration; mitogen-activated protein kinase     

Mitochondrial transport in processes of cortical neurons is independent of intracellular calcium

Mitochondria show extensive movement along neuronal processes, but the mechanisms and function of this movement are not clearly understood. We have used high-resolution confocal microscopy to simultaneously monitor movement of mitochondria and changes in intracellular [Ca²⁺] ([Ca²⁺]_i) in rat cortical neurons. A significant percentage (27%) of the total mitochondria in cortical neuronal processes showed movement over distances of >2 µM. The average velocity was 0.52 µm/s. The velocity, direction, and pattern of mitochondrial movement were not affected by transient increases in [Ca²⁺]_i associated with spontaneous firing of action potentials. Stimulation of Ca²⁺ transients with forskolin (10 µM) or bicuculline (10 µM), or sustained elevations of [Ca²⁺]_i evoked by glutamate (10 µM) also had no effect on mitochondrial transit. Neither removal of extracellular Ca²⁺, depletion of intracellular Ca²⁺ stores with thapsigargin, or inhibition of synaptic activity with TTX (1 µM) or a cocktail of CNQX (10 µM) and MK801 (10 µM) affected mitochondrial movement. These results indicate that movement of mitochondria along processes is a fundamental activity in neurons that occurs independently of physiological changes in [Ca²⁺]_i associated with action potential firing, synaptic activity, or release of Ca²⁺ from intracellular stores. calcium transient; dendrites     

Calcium-dependent regulation of calcium efflux by the cardiac sodium/calcium exchanger

Allosteric regulation by cytosolic Ca²⁺ of Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange activity in the Ca²⁺ efflux mode has received little attention because it has been technically difficult to distinguish between the roles of Ca²⁺ as allosteric activator and transport substrate. In this study, we used transfected Chinese hamster ovary cells to compare the Ca²⁺ efflux activities in nontransfected cells and in cells expressing either the wild-type exchanger or a mutant, (241–680), that operates constitutively; i.e., its activity does not require allosteric Ca²⁺ activation. Expression of the wild-type exchanger did not significantly lower the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) compared with nontransfected cells. During Ca²⁺ entry through store-operated Ca²⁺ channels, Ca²⁺ efflux by the wild-type exchanger became evident only after [Ca²⁺]_i approached 100–200 nM. A subsequent decline in [Ca²⁺]_i was observed, suggesting that the activation process was time dependent. In contrast, Ca²⁺ efflux activity was evident under all experimental conditions in cells expressing the constitutive exchanger mutant. After transient exposure to elevated [Ca²⁺]_i, the wild-type exchanger behaved similarly to the constitutive mutant for tens of seconds after [Ca²⁺]_i had returned to resting levels. We conclude that Ca²⁺ efflux activity by the wild-type exchanger is allosterically activated by Ca²⁺, perhaps in a time-dependent manner, and that the activated state is briefly retained after the return of [Ca²⁺]_i to resting levels. persistent calcium activation; store-operated channels; calcium transient     

Bidirectional Ca2+ coupling of mitochondria with the endoplasmic reticulum and regulation of multimodal Ca2+ entries in rat brown adipocytes

How the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria communicate with each other and how they regulate plasmalemmal Ca²⁺ entry were studied in cultured rat brown adipocytes. Cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ and mitochondrial membrane potential were measured by fluorometry. The sustained component of rises in cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) produced by thapsigargin was abolished by removing extracellular Ca²⁺, depressed by depleting extracellular Na⁺, and enhanced by raising extracellular pH. FCCP, dinitrophenol, and rotenone caused bi- or triphasic rises in [Ca²⁺]_i, in which the first phase was accompanied by mitochondrial depolarization. The FCCP-induced first phase was partially inhibited by oligomycin but not by ruthenium red, cyclosporine A, U-73122, a Ca²⁺-free EGTA solution, and an Na⁺-free solution. The FCCP-induced second phase paralleling mitochondrial repolarization was partially blocked by removing extracellular Ca²⁺ and fully blocked by oligomycin but not by thapsigargin or an Na⁺-deficient solution, was accompanied by a rise in cytoplasmic Mg²⁺ concentration, and was summated with a high pH-induced rise in [Ca²⁺]_i, whereas the extracellular Ca²⁺-independent component was blocked by U-73122 and cyclopiazonic acid. The FCCP-induced third phase was blocked by removing Ca²⁺ but not by thapsigargin, depressed by decreasing Na⁺, and enhanced by raising pH. Cyclopiazonic acid-evoked rises in [Ca²⁺]_i in a Ca²⁺-free solution were depressed after FCCP actions. Thus mitochondrial uncoupling causes Ca²⁺ release, activating Ca²⁺ release from the ER and store-operated Ca²⁺ entry, and directly elicits a novel plasmalemmal Ca²⁺ entry, whereas Ca²⁺ release from the ER activates Ca²⁺ accumulation in, or release from, mitochondria, indicating bidirectional mitochondria-ER couplings in rat brown adipocytes. plasmalemmal calcium entry; calcium release; mitochondrial depolarization; FCCP     

L-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels in cerebral microvascular endothelial cells and ET-1 biosynthesis

We investigatedthe role of intracellular calcium concentration([Ca²⁺]_i) in endothelin-1 (ET-1) production,the effects of potential vasospastic agents on[Ca²⁺]_i, and the presence of L-typevoltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels in cerebral microvascularendothelial cells. Primary cultures of endothelial cells isolated frompiglet cerebral microvessels were used. Confluent cells were exposed toeither the thromboxane receptor agonist U-46619 (1 µM),5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT; 0.1 mM), or lysophosphatidic acid (LPA; 1 µM) alone or after pretreatment with the Ca²⁺-chelatingagent EDTA (100 mM), the L-type Ca²⁺ channel blockerverapamil (10 µM), or the antagonist of receptor-operated Ca²⁺ channel SKF-96365 HCl (10 µM) for 15 min. ET-1production increased from 1.2 (control) to 8.2 (U-46619), 4.9 (5-HT),or 3.9 (LPA) fmol/µg protein, respectively. Such elevated ET-1biosynthesis was attenuated by verapamil, EDTA, or SKF-96365 HCl. Toinvestigate the presence of L-type voltage-dependent Ca²⁺channels in endothelial cells, the [Ca²⁺]_isignal was determined fluorometrically by using fura 2-AM. Superfusionof confluent endothelial cells with U-46619, 5-HT, or LPA significantlyincreased [Ca²⁺]_i. Pretreatment ofendothelial cells with high K⁺ (60 mM) or nifedipine (4 µM) diminished increases in [Ca²⁺]_i inducedby the vasoactive agents. These results indicate that 1)elevated [Ca²⁺]_i signals are involved in ET-1biosynthesis induced by specific spasmogenic agents, 2) theincreases in [Ca²⁺]_i induced by thevasoactive agents tested involve receptor as well as L-typevoltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels, and 3) primarycultures of cerebral microvascular endothelial cells express L-typevoltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels.

     

Modulation of intracellular Ca2+ release and capacitative Ca2+ entry by CaMKII inhibitors in bovine vascular endothelial cells

The effects of inhibitors of CaMKII on intracellular Ca²⁺ signaling were examined in single calf pulmonary artery endothelial (CPAE) cells using indo-1 microfluorometry to measure cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i). The three CaMKII inhibitors, KN-93, KN-62, and autocamtide-2-related inhibitory peptide (AIP), all reduced the plateau phase of the [Ca²⁺]_i transient evoked by stimulation with extracellular ATP. Exposure to KN-93 or AIP alone in the presence of 2 mM extracellular Ca²⁺ resulted in a dose-dependent increase of [Ca²⁺]_i consisting of a rapid and transient Ca²⁺ spike followed by a small sustained plateau phase of elevated [Ca²⁺]_i. Exposure to KN-93 in the absence of extracellular Ca²⁺ caused a transient rise of [Ca²⁺]_i, suggesting that exposure to CaMKII inhibitors directly triggered release of Ca²⁺ from intracellular endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca²⁺ stores. Repetitive stimulation with KN-93 and ATP, respectively, revealed that both components released Ca²⁺ largely from the same store. Pretreatment of CPAE cells with the membrane-permeable inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) receptor blocker 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate caused a significant inhibition of the KN-93-induced Ca²⁺ response, suggesting that exposure to KN-93 affects Ca²⁺ release from an IP₃-sensitive store. Depletion of Ca²⁺ stores by exposure to ATP or to the ER Ca²⁺ pump inhibitor thapsigargin triggered robust capacitative Ca²⁺ entry (CCE) signals in CPAE cells that could be blocked effectively with KN-93. The data suggest that in CPAE cells, CaMKII modulates Ca²⁺ handling at different levels. The use of CaMKII inhibitors revealed that in CPAE cells, the most profound effects of CaMKII are inhibition of release of Ca²⁺ from intracellular stores and activation of CCE. Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent kinase II; calcium regulation; capacitative calcium entry     

Role of calcium channels in carboxyl-terminal parathyroid hormone receptor signaling

Parathyroid hormone (PTH), an 84-amino acid polypeptide, is a major systemic regulator of calcium homeostasis that activates PTH/PTHrP receptors (PTH1Rs) on target cells. Carboxyl fragments of PTH (CPTH), secreted by the parathyroids or generated by PTH proteolysis in the liver, circulate in blood at concentrations much higher than intact PTH-(1–84) but cannot activate PTH1Rs. Receptors specific for CPTH fragments (CPTHRs), distinct from PTH1Rs, are expressed by bone cells, especially osteocytes. Activation of CPTHRs was previously reported to modify intracellular calcium within chondrocytes. To further investigate the mechanism of action of CPTHRs in osteocytes, cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) was measured in the PTH1R-null osteocytic cell line OC59, which expresses abundant CPTHRs but no PTH1Rs. [Ca²⁺]_i was assessed by single-cell ratiometric microfluorimetry in fura-2-loaded OC59 cells. A rapid and transient increase in [Ca²⁺]_i was observed in OC59 cells in response to the CPTH fragment hPTH-(53–84) (250 nM). No [Ca²⁺]_i signal was observed in COS-7 cells, in which CPTHR binding also cannot be detected. Neither hPTH-(1–34) nor a mutant CPTH analog, [Ala^55–57]hPTH-(53–84), that does not to bind to CPTHRs, increased [Ca²⁺]_i in OC59 cells. The [Ca²⁺]_i response to hPTH-(53–84) required the presence of extracellular calcium and was blocked by inhibitors of voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs), including nifedipine (100 nM), -agatoxin IVA (10 nM), and -conotoxin GVIA (100 nM). We conclude that activation of CPTHRs in OC59 osteocytic cells leads to a rapid increase in influx of extracellular calcium, most likely through the opening of VDCCs. calcium influx; osteocytes     

Heterogeneity of mitochondrial matrix free Ca2+: resolution of Ca2+ dynamics in individual mitochondria in situ

The role of mitochondria inCa²⁺ homeostasis is controversial.We employed the Ca²⁺-sensitive dyerhod 2 with novel, high temporal and spatial resolution imaging toevaluate changes in the matrix freeCa²⁺ concentration of individualmitochondria([Ca²⁺]_m)in agonist-stimulated, primary cultured aortic myocytes. Stimulation with 10 µM serotonin (5-HT) evoked modest cytosolicCa²⁺ transients[cytosolic freeCa²⁺ concentration([Ca²⁺]_cyt)<500 nM; measured with fura 2] and triggered contractions inshort-term cultured myocytes. However, 5-HT triggered a large mitochondrial rhod 2 signal (indicating pronounced elevation of [Ca²⁺]_m)in only 4% of cells. This revealed heterogeneity in the responses ofindividual mitochondria, all of which stained with MitoTracker GreenFM. In contrast, stimulation with 100 µM ATP evoked large cytosolicCa²⁺ transients (>1,000 nM) andinduced pronounced, reversible elevation of[Ca²⁺]_m(measured as rhod 2 fluorescence) in 60% of cells. This mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake usually lagged behindthe cytosolic Ca²⁺ transient peakby 3-5 s, and[Ca²⁺]_mdeclined more slowly than did bulk[Ca²⁺]_cyt.The uptake delay may prevent mitochondria from interfering with rapidsignaling events while enhancing the mitochondrial response to large,long-duration elevations of[Ca²⁺]_cyt.The responses of arterial myocytes to modest physiological stimulationdo not, however, depend on such marked changes in [Ca²⁺]_m.     

Intracellular signal transduction during gastrin-induced histamine secretion in rat gastric ECL cells

Activation of G_qprotein-coupled receptors usually causes a biphasic increase inintracellular calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i)that is crucial for secretion in nonexcitable cells. In gastric enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells, stimulation with gastrin leads to aprompt biphasic calcium response followed by histamine secretion. Thisstudy investigates the underlying signaling events in this neuroendocrine cell type. In ECL cells, RT-PCR suggested the presence of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP₃R) subtypes1-3. The IP₃R antagonist 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borateabolished both gastrin-induced elevation of[Ca²⁺]_i and histamine release. Thapsigarginincreased [Ca²⁺]_i, however, without inducinghistamine secretion. In thapsigargin-pretreated cells, gastrinincreased [Ca²⁺]_i through calcium influxacross the plasma membrane. Both nimodipine and SKF-96365 inhibitedgastrin-induced histamine release. The protein kinase C (PKC) activatorphorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate induced histamine secretion, an effectthat was prevented by nimodipine. In summary, gastrin-stimulatedhistamine release depends on IP₃R activation andplasmalemmal calcium entry. Gastrin-induced calcium influx wasmediated by dihydropyridine-sensitive calcium channels that appear tobe L-type channels activated through a pathway involving activation of PKC.

     

Ca2+-mobilizing agonists increase mitochondrial ATP production to accelerate cytosolic Ca2+ removal: aberrations in human complex I deficiency

Previously, we reported that both the bradykinin (Bk)-induced increase in mitochondrial ATP concentration ([ATP]_M) and the rate of cytosolic Ca²⁺ removal are significantly decreased in skin fibroblasts from a patient with an isolated complex I deficiency. Here we demonstrate that the mitochondrial Ca²⁺ indicator rhod-2 can be used to selectively buffer the Bk-induced increase in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_M) and, consequently, the Ca²⁺-stimulated increase in [ATP]_M, thus allowing studies of how the increase in [ATP]_M and the cytosolic Ca²⁺ removal rate are related. Luminometry of healthy fibroblasts expressing either aequorin or luciferase in the mitochondrial matrix showed that rhod-2 dose dependently decreased the Bk-induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_M and [ATP]_M by maximally 80 and 90%, respectively. Digital imaging microscopy of cells coloaded with the cytosolic Ca²⁺ indicator fura-2 revealed that, in parallel, rhod-2 maximally decreased the cytosolic Ca²⁺ removal rate by 20%. These findings demonstrate that increased mitochondrial ATP production is required for accelerating cytosolic Ca²⁺ removal during stimulation with a Ca²⁺-mobilizing agonist. In contrast, complex I-deficient patient fibroblasts displayed a cytosolic Ca²⁺ removal rate that was already decreased by 40% compared with healthy fibroblasts. Rhod-2 did not further decrease this rate, indicating the absence of mitochondrial ATP supply to the cytosolic Ca²⁺ pumps. This work reveals the usefulness of rhodamine-based Ca²⁺ indicators in examining the role of intramitochondrial Ca²⁺ in mitochondrial (patho) physiology. human skin fibroblast; OXPHOS disease; calcium ion extrusion; rhod-2; CGP-37157     

Differential Ca2+ signaling by thrombin and protease-activated receptor-1-activating peptide in human brain microvascular endothelial cells

Thrombin and related protease-activated receptors 1, 2, 3, and 4 (PAR1–4) play a multifunctional role in many types of cells including endothelial cells. Here, using RT-PCR and immunofluorescence staining, we showed for the first time that PAR1–4 are expressed on primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC). Digital fluorescence microscopy and fura 2 were used to monitor intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) changes in response to thrombin and PAR1-activating peptide (PAR1-AP) SFFLRN. Both thrombin and PAR1-AP induced a dose-dependent [Ca²⁺]_i rise that was inhibited by pretreatment of HBMEC with the phospholipase C inhibitor U-73122 and the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin. Thrombin induced transient [Ca²⁺]_i increase, whereas PAR1-AP exhibited sustained [Ca²⁺]_i rise. The PAR1-AP-induced sustained [Ca²⁺]_i rise was significantly reduced in the absence of extracellular calcium or in the presence of an inhibitor of store-operated calcium channels, SKF-96365. Restoration of extracellular Ca²⁺ to the cells that were initially activated by PAR1-AP in the absence of extracellular Ca²⁺ resulted in significant [Ca²⁺]_i rise; however, this effect was not observed after thrombin stimulation. Pretreatment of the cells with a low thrombin concentration (0.1 nM) prevented [Ca²⁺]_i rise in response to high thrombin concentration (10 nM), but pretreatment with PAR1-AP did not prevent subsequent [Ca²⁺]_i rise to high PAR1-AP concentration. Additionally, treatment with thrombin decreased transendothelial electrical resistance in HBMEC, whereas PAR1-AP was without significant effect. These findings suggest that, in contrast to thrombin, stimulation of PAR1 by untethered peptide SFFLRN results in stimulation of store-operated Ca²⁺ influx without significantly affecting brain endothelial barrier functions. store-operated calcium influx; desensitization; transendothelial electrical resistance; digital imaging     

Regulation of smooth muscle calcium sensitivity: KCl as a calcium-sensitizing stimulus

KCl has long been used as a convenient stimulus to bypass G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) and activate smooth muscle by a highly reproducible and relatively "simple" mechanism involving activation of voltage-operated Ca²⁺ channels that leads to increases in cytosolic free Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_i), Ca²⁺-calmodulin-dependent myosin light chain (MLC) kinase activation, MLC phosphorylation and contraction. This KCl-induced stimulus-response coupling mechanism is a standard tool-set used in comparative studies to explore more complex mechanisms generated by activation of GPCRs. One area where this approach has been especially productive is in studies designed to understand Ca²⁺ sensitization, the relationship between [Ca²⁺]_i and force produced by GPCR agonists. Studies done in the late 1980s demonstrated that a unique relationship between stimulus-induced [Ca²⁺]_i and force does not exist: for a given increase in [Ca²⁺]_i, GPCR activation can produce greater force than KCl, and relaxant agents can produce the opposite effect to cause Ca²⁺ desensitization. Such changes in Ca²⁺ sensitivity are now known to involve multiple cell signaling strategies, including translocation of proteins from cytosol to plasma membrane, and activation of enzymes, including RhoA kinase and protein kinase C. However, recent studies show that KCl can also cause Ca²⁺ sensitization involving translocation and activation of RhoA kinase. Rather than complicating the Ca²⁺ sensitivity story, this surprising finding is already providing novel insights into mechanisms regulating Ca²⁺ sensitivity of smooth muscle contraction. KCl as a "simple" stimulus promises to remain a standard tool for smooth muscle cell physiologists, whose focus is to understand mechanisms regulating Ca²⁺ sensitivity. K⁺ depolarization; cell signaling; signal transduction; contraction     

Regulation of exocytosis by purinergic receptors in pancreatic duct epithelial cells

In epithelial cells, several intracellular signals regulate the secretion of large molecules such as mucin via exocytosis and the transport of ions through channels and transporters. Using carbon fiber amperometry, we previously reported that exocytosis of secretory granules in dog pancreatic duct epithelial cells (PDEC) can be stimulated by pharmacological activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) or protein kinase C (PKC), as well as by an increase of intracellular free Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i). In this study, we examined whether exocytosis in these cells is modulated by activation of endogenous P2Y receptors, which increase cAMP and [Ca²⁺]_i. Low concentrations of ATP (<10 µM) induced intracellular Ca²⁺ oscillation but no significant exocytosis. In contrast, 100 µM ATP induced a sustained [Ca²⁺]_i rise and increased the exocytosis rate sevenfold. The contribution of Ca²⁺ or cAMP pathways to exocytosis was tested by using the Ca²⁺ chelator BAPTA or the PKA inhibitors H-89 or Rp-8-bromoadenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate. Removal of [Ca²⁺]_i rise or inhibition of PKA each partially reduced exocytosis; when combined, they abolished exocytosis. In conclusion, ATP at concentrations >10 µM stimulates exocytosis from PDEC through both Ca²⁺ and cAMP pathways. secretion; amperometry; photometry; calcium, adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate     

Calcium Movement in Cardiac Mitochondria

Existing theory suggests that mitochondria act as significant, dynamic buffers of cytosolic calcium ([Ca²⁺]_i) in heart. These buffers can remove up to one-third of the Ca²⁺ that enters the cytosol during the [Ca²⁺]_i transients that underlie contractions. However, few quantitative experiments have been presented to test this hypothesis. Here, we investigate the influence of Ca²⁺ movement across the inner mitochondrial membrane during both subcellular and global cellular cytosolic Ca²⁺ signals (i.e., Ca²⁺ sparks and [Ca²⁺]_i transients, respectively) in isolated rat cardiomyocytes. By rapidly turning off the mitochondria using depolarization of the inner mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ_m), the role of the mitochondria in buffering cytosolic Ca²⁺ signals was investigated. We show here that rapid loss of ΔΨ_m leads to no significant changes in cytosolic Ca²⁺ signals. Second, we make direct measurements of mitochondrial [Ca²⁺] ([Ca²⁺]_m) using a mitochondrially targeted Ca²⁺ probe (MityCam) and these data suggest that [Ca²⁺]_m is near the [Ca²⁺]_i level (∼100 nM) under quiescent conditions. These two findings indicate that although the mitochondrial matrix is fully buffer-capable under quiescent conditions, it does not function as a significant dynamic buffer during physiological Ca²⁺ signaling. Finally, quantitative analysis using a computational model of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ cycling suggests that mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake would need to be at least ∼100-fold greater than the current estimates of Ca²⁺ influx for mitochondria to influence measurably cytosolic [Ca²⁺] signals under physiological conditions. Combined, these experiments and computational investigations show that mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake does not significantly alter cytosolic Ca²⁺ signals under normal conditions and indicates that mitochondria do not act as important dynamic buffers of [Ca²⁺]_i under physiological conditions in heart.     

Sperm extract and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate induce cytosolic calcium rise in the central cell of Torenia fournieri

Microinjection of soluble sperm extract and Calcium Green-1 10 kDa-dextran conjugate (CG-1) into the mature central cell of Torenia fournieri induced a significant rise in cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i). The rise reached a maximum at 20 min after injection and then steadily declined. Nevertheless, a relatively high level of [Ca²⁺]_i was maintained even 40 min after injection. Microinjection of sperm extract of maize into Torenia central cells, however, did not trigger any increase in [Ca²⁺]_i, suggesting the possibility of distinct triggers in different species. We also injected caged inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (InsP₃) and caged cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) into Torenia central cells to compare the pattern of Ca²⁺ rise induced by the sperm extract. The results showed that [Ca²⁺]_i elevation triggered by the release of InsP₃ after photolysis appears much faster than that induced by sperm extract. The increase in [Ca²⁺]_i reached a maximum at 70-80 s and dropped to the resting level within 300 s after photolysis. Microinjection of cADPR, however, did not induce any changes in [Ca²⁺]_i. The results indicate that sperm extract might contain factors triggering the release of Ca²⁺ in the central cell.     

A novel method for assessing effects of hydrostatic fluid pressure on intracellular calcium: a study with bovine articular chondrocytes

Chondrocytes in articular cartilage are exposed to hydrostatic pressure and distortional stress during weight bearing and joint loading. Because these stresses occur simultaneously in articular cartilage, the mechanism of mechanosignal transduction due to hydrostatic pressure alone in chondrocytes is not clear. In this study, we attempted to characterize the change in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) in response to the application of hydrostatic fluid pressure (HFP) to cultured bovine articular chondrocytes isolated from defined surface (SZ) and middle zones (MZ) by using a fluorescent indicator (X-rhod-1 AM), a novel custom-made pressure-proof optical chamber, and laser confocal microscopy. Critical methodology implemented in this experiment involved application of high levels of HFP to the cells and the use of a novel imaging apparatus to measure the peak [Ca²⁺]_i in individual cells. The peak [Ca²⁺]_i in MZ cells cultured for 5 days showed a significant twofold increase after the application of HFP at constant 0.5 MPa for 5 min. The peak [Ca²⁺]_i in SZ cells was lower (43%) than that of MZ cells. The peak was suppressed with an inhibitor of dantrolene, gadolinium, or a calcium ion-free buffer, but not with verapamil. This study indicated that the increase in [Ca²⁺]_i in chondrocytes to HFP is dependent on the zonal origin. HFP stimulates calcium mobilization and stretch-activated channels. real-time optical measurement; intracellular calcium; mechanosignal transduction