Gender,family configuration,and the effect of family background on educational attainment

Abstract

A comprehensive model of family influences on educational resemblance of siblings expands the traditional sibling pair model to a full sibship model in order to investigate how gender, gender composition of sibships, and a measure of ordinal position moderate the effect of social origins on educational attainments of siblings. One common family factor is sufficient to explain the variation of educational attainment among brothers and sisters. Although effects of social origin variables on brothers are larger than on sisters, the relative effects of measured social origins are virtually the same among sisters and brothers. The disparity between educational attainments of brothers and sisters persists across sex composition and family size. Ordinal position does not alter the effects of social origins on educational attainment nor does it directly affect educational attainment. Father's and mother's education are equally important for all siblings regardless of birth order, gender composition, and family size.     

Heights and weights of Da-an boys: did sisters really make a difference?

This study further examined the negative association between boys' growth and the presence of sisters within a relatively affluent community in Taipei, Taiwan. Among 596 boys born in 1976-77, differences in height and log-transformed weight were judged using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with measurement age as a covariate, and parental education level (four levels), number of sisters (0, 1, 2 or 3+) and number of brothers (0, 1, 2+) as predictors. The relative importance of birth order and sibling sex was examined among the near majority of boys with one sibling (47%, 278/596). The sibling composition variable was defined using mutually exclusive categories representing individuals with one sibling: either one older or younger brother or sister. All boys contributed information before leaving middle school at a mean age of 14.9 +/- 0.4 years SD. The results were compared with similar analyses of data for 154 of these same boys for whom measurements were available from primary school entry at a mean age of 64 +/- 0.3 years SD onward. Results were also compared with data for a cohort of 153 boys who entered primary school later in 1986. Results confirm that boys from the Da-an area born in the mid-1970s who did not have sisters were significantly taller (2.2-2.5 cm, p < or = 0.008) and heavier (3.0-3.9 kg, p < or = 0.016) than those with one or two sisters. However, the 26 boys with three or more sisters, most of whom were last-born, were somewhat taller than those with one or two sisters. The same curvilinear relationships in height and weight appeared both among boys as they prepared to leave middle school and among the subset also measured just after entering primary school. When numbers of sisters were statistically controlled, the presence of two or more brothers was also significantly negatively associated with mean stature, but not weight, among middle school boys. Analyses among boys with one sibling revealed that birth order was associated with mean stature, but only if the sibling was female; an older sister was associated with a greater deficit in mean stature than a younger sister. Evidence of rising educational expectations, continued declines in family size with fewer gender-related differences in numbers of siblings, and a clear secular increase in body size in this community among children entering primary school from 1982 to 1986 suggest a possible explanatory model.     

Sibling composition during childhood and adult blood pressure among native Amazonians in Bolivia

Sibling configuration, including birth order, or the number, age, and sex of siblings is associated with parental resource allocation between children and is thus associated with a person's well-being. Little is known about the association between specific types of siblings and adult health outcomes. Here we test several hypotheses about sibling composition (number of older brothers, older sisters, younger sisters, younger brothers) and adult blood pressure in a foraging-farming society of native Amazonians in Bolivia (Tsimane’). We collected data in 2007 from 374 adults (16–60 years of age) from 196 households in 13 villages. Household random-effects multiple regressions were run using systolic (SBP) or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) as outcomes; covariates included the four sibling categories and control variables (e.g., sex, age, education, body mass index [BMI]). Mean SBP and DBP were 114 (SD = 14) and 66 (SD = 11) mmHg. The prevalence of hypertension was 5.08%. Having an additional younger brother bore a small (3.3–5.9%) positive association with both SBP and DBP, with the effect weakening as people aged. Having an additional younger sister was associated with a small (3.8%) increase in SBP among women, with the magnitude shrinking as people aged. In a large family, the number of younger brothers may exert an impact on an individual's blood pressure.     

Rank relations among sisters in semi-free-ranging Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

Although semi-free-ranging Barbary macaque females are able to outrank older females from lower-ranking matrilines (matrilineal rank acquisition), they do not systematically outrank their older sisters, as is known to be the case for semi-free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). We test the hypothesis that differences in the support received by younger sisters against their older sisters and against older lower-ranking females might account for this interspecific difference. Thirty-one sister dyads, members of a group of 109 Barbary macaques living at La Montagne des Singes, France, were observed during 16 months. The results indicate that (1) all females were dominant to their younger sisters, and the latter were never observed to challenge their older sisters; (2) younger sisters received as much kin support against their older sisters as against older lower-ranking females; (3) only very young females received support from their kin against their older sisters; (4) younger sisters received much more support from nonkin females against lower-ranking females than against their older sisters; and (5) Barbary macaque females appear to be supported against their older sisters less frequently than rhesus macaque females are. We conclude that the lack of nonkin support is the main factor accounting for the failure of younger sisters to outrank their older sisters in Barbary macaques. Initially this might result from kin support not being sufficient to induce younger sisters to challenge and to solicit support against their older sisters.     

Menarche and father absence in a national probability sample

The relation between women's timing of menarche and father absence was examined in a national probability sample of Great Britain (NATSAL 2000; N>5000). Current body mass index (as a proxy for childhood weight) was examined as a potential mediator of this relationship, along with the potential moderating role that siblings (e.g. number of older brothers) had on this relationship. As in a number of previous studies, an absent father (but not an absent mother) during childhood predicted an earlier age of puberty (i.e. an early menarche). There was no evidence that weight mediated this relationship or that siblings moderated it. Both a lower body mass index and more siblings (e.g. more younger sisters and brothers) were independent predictors of a later timing of puberty. The results confirm that certain psychosocial factors (i.e. father absence; presence of siblings) may affect the timing of sexual maturation in adolescent girls.     

Genealogical and cross-genealogical dominance relations in a group of free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) on Cayo Santiago

Observations of dominance relations in a large group of rhesus monkeys on Cayo Santiago were carried out over a period of 25 months. Dyadic interactions in which an aggressive gesture in one individual was followed by a submissive gesture in the other were recorded as fights and considered reliable indices of dominance. The analysis revealed the following characteristics: (1) Maternal dominance over female offspring; (2) maternal dominance over male offspring up the age six years at which time the son leaves his natal group or remains in the group and rises in rank over his mother; (3) dominance of older brothers over younger male siblings until the age of five years at which time the younger brother rises in rank; (4) rank reversal between sisters when the younger sister reaches the age of three to four years; (5) brother-sister relative rank dependency on age until the male sibling reaches three to four years at which time he rises in rank; (6) linear dominance relations in the crossgenealogical dominance hierarchy; and (7) linear, but unstable, dominance relations in the adult male hierarchy. With few exceptions, the pattern of genealogical, cross-genealogical, and adult male dominance relations in the group under study was consistent with data reported for a small social group (group F) on Cayo Santiago and for Japanese macaques.     

Social dynamics and individual plasticity of infant care behavior in cooperatively breeding cotton‐top tamarins

Individual variation in infant caretaking behavior is prevalent among marmoset and tamarin monkeys. Although most group members participate in infant care, the timing and amount provided differs greatly. In this study, we quantified general trends in infant carrying behavior by using a longitudinal database that included 11 years of instantaneous scan observations following 80 births of cotton‐top tamarins. Using detailed focal observations on a subset of the same families (10 births) we identified influences that affected expression of infant care at the group and individual levels. Fathers were the primary carriers and paternal carry time gradually decreased with increasing infant age. Paternal carry time also decreased significantly with an increasing number of older sibling helpers. Most fathers began to carry on the first day postpartum. However, we report circumstances in which fathers delayed carrying until almost a month postpartum. Fathers retrieved infants the most, although adult brothers' rates of retrievals peaked and surpassed fathers' rates during week 4 postpartum. Fathers delayed rejection of infants until week 4, whereas mothers rejected infants immediately and throughout the eight weeks. Nonetheless, infants climbed onto their mothers more than onto any other family member. Mothers showed a high initial investment in carrying during the first two weeks, decreasing quickly thereafter. Maternal contributions to infant carrying remained low and relatively consistent regardless of group size. However, mothers dramatically increased their infant carrying behavior in families in which fathers were absent. Older siblings cared for infants more than did younger siblings, and brothers retrieved and carried infants more than did sisters. Individual expression of infant care changed to accommodate infant needs and changed according to varying social dynamics and circumstances across litters. Am. J. Primatol. 72:296–306, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Rethinking the Taiwanese minor marriage data: evidence the mind uses multiple kinship cues to regulate inbreeding avoidance

Natural experiments such as the Israeli Kibbutzim and Taiwanese minor marriages provide unique opportunities for testing the effects of childhood association on adult sexual attraction. Within these populations, early childhood association leads to the development of a sexual aversion, an effect first proposed by Edward Westermarck. However, recent analysis of Taiwanese minor marriages indicates that only the age at first association (an inverse index of childhood association) of the younger partner predicts marital fertility rates; the age at first association of the older partner does not. Although considered a puzzle, a recent model of human inbreeding avoidance can explain this pattern. This model suggests that the mind uses at least two kinship cues to regulate the development of sibling sexual aversions: (i) childhood coresidence duration, a default cue used mainly by younger siblings in detecting probable older siblings, and (ii) exposure to one's mother caring for a newborn, a cue only available to older siblings and reliable regardless of coresidence duration and, hence, age at first association. Thus, one reason that the age at first association of only the younger partner in minor marriages predicts fertility is that coresidence duration serves as a cue to siblingship mainly for younger partners; older partners use a different kinship cue not influenced by durations of association. When compared to data from psychological investigations of the effects of coresidence duration on opposition to sibling incest, the minor marriage data reveal an identical pattern providing converging lines of evidence that multiple kinship cues mediate sibling detection and inbreeding avoidance in humans.     

Brothers and sisters

Data from the Kipsigis of Kenya are used to test two models for how parents invest in offspring, the Trivers-Willard and local resource competition/enhancement hypotheses. Investment is measured as age-specific survival, educational success, marital arrangements, and some components of property inheritance, permitting an evaluation of how biases persist or alter over the period of dependence. Changes through time in such biases are also examined. Despite stronger effects of wealth on the reproductive success of men than women, the survival of sons and daughters is not related to parental wealth. However, a Trivers-Willard effect characterizes educational investment: poor families show a greater concern for daughters’ (vis-à-vis sons’) schooling than do rich families, a trend that has increased over time. In regard to models of local resource competition and enhancement, men’s reproductive success decreases with number of brothers and increases with number of sisters; this pattern of competition with same-sex sibs and cooperation with opposite-sex sibs is not found among women. As predicted from these observations, parents show reduced investment in sons with a large number of brothers, and increased investment in sons with a large number of sisters. By contrast, investment in daughters is entirely unaffected by number of sisters and is influenced only in subtle ways by number of brothers. Levels of investment in relation to sibship size (irrespective of siblings’ sex) are highest for younger children of large sib sets. Discussion of the results in relation to those from other studies leads to three conclusions. First, predictive models for how investment biases vary across societies must consider a broad range of socioecological factors constraining parental options and payoffs. Second, the timing of investment biases within societies will be affected by the value of children and the costs of parental investment. Third, measures of investment appropriate for between-sex and between-class comparisons need careful attention. Each of these issues is brought to bear on the question of why, in contrast to so many other parts of the world, sex preferences are so muted in Africa.     

The vigilance components of begging and sibling competition

The conflict between siblings over how parental resources are divided has promoted the evolution of specific behaviour to outcompete each other. Young animals look out for parents’ arrival in order to start begging as quickly as possible, since a rapid begging reaction increases the likelihood of being fed before nestmates. If the young can physically intercept the parents, selection might be operating on the offspring ability to monitor parent arrival (vigilance towards parents) and any sudden modifications in siblings’ behaviour (vigilance towards siblings). To investigate the adaptive value of nestling vigilance in the context of family interactions, we recorded which direction barn owl Tyto alba siblings were facing in 89 two‐chick broods before the first parental feeding visit of the night. Nestlings were more vigilant towards nest entrance than expected by chance suggesting that vigilance towards parents is an important component of sibling competition. When positioned near the nest‐box entrance where parents predictably deliver food, the younger individual (i.e. junior) looked more towards the entrance than its older sibling. Thus, when the likelihood of obtaining a food item is relatively high, juniors are more vigilant than seniors to detect the incoming parent. When positioned at the back of the nest, the senior looked relatively more frequently towards its sibling than the junior did in the same situation. This suggests that when the likelihood of obtaining a food item is relatively low, seniors are more vigilant than juniors to observe their sibling. Because vigilance was not related to hunger level and prey obtaining, we propose the hypothesis that vigilance towards parents and siblings only indirectly influences the outcome of sibling competition.     

Reproductive competition between females in the matrilineal Mosuo of southwestern China

The matrilineal Mosuo of southwestern China live in communal households where brothers and sisters of three generations live together (duolocal residence), and men visit their wives, who reside elsewhere, only at night in ‘visiting’ marriages. Here we show that these communally breeding sisters are in reproductive conflict, in the sense that they share the resources needed to reproduce. We analyse determinants of reproductive success in females and males, and show that co-resident female kin are in competition; the more female kin reside in the household, the more reproductive success is reduced. Male reproductive success, however, is not determined by the kin in his natal household; duolocal males are not in reproductive conflict with their siblings. Competition with female cousins can be worse than that between sisters. We also find that female work on the farm (which is the main communal resource) is not equal. We use a ‘tug-of-war’ model of reproductive skew generated by incomplete control, to model the patterns of effort put into competition between sisters and cousins. The model predicts that more dominant (older) sisters will put less effort into reproductive conflict than will less dominant (younger) sisters; but younger sisters will also have lower reproductive success because they are less efficient at gaining access to the shared resource. Both predictions are consistent with our data. Younger sisters work less in the fields than do older sisters, which may represent a form of conflict or may be because their average relatedness to the household is lower than that of their more fertile older sisters.     

Kin detection cues and sibling relationship quality in adulthood: The role of childhood co-residence duration and maternal perinatal association

Cues facilitating kin detection among children have been suggested to have a profound impact on adult sibling relationships. Using a large and population-based data of younger and middle-aged Finns, we test how childhood co-residence duration and maternal perinatal association (MPA) correlate with contact frequency, emotional closeness and provision of help between adult siblings. Employing sibling fixed-effect regression models we show that duration of co-residence in childhood and MPA are indeed associated with better relationship quality in all three measures. Provided MPA, sibling relationship quality is high independently of co-residence length, but in the absence of MPA, increased co-residence duration is associated with better relationship quality. Co-residence duration is more strongly associated with provision of help between opposite-gender than same-gender sibling dyads. Full siblings report better relationship quality than half siblings do, although the co-residence duration mediates the effect of genetic relatedness in emotional closeness between full and maternal half siblings and in provision of help between full and paternal half siblings. Moreover, MPA serves as a mediator in the case of emotional closeness between full and maternal half siblings. Our results provide solid support for the importance of childhood kin detection cues for sibling relationship quality in adulthood, and how such cues interact with genetic relatedness and gender.     

Evaluating indirect genetic effects of siblings using singletons

Estimating effects of parental and sibling genotypes (indirect genetic effects) can provide insight into how the family environment influences phenotypic variation. There is growing molecular genetic evidence for effects of parental phenotypes on their offspring (e.g. parental educational attainment), but the extent to which siblings affect each other is currently unclear. Here we used data from samples of unrelated individuals, without (singletons) and with biological full-siblings (non-singletons), to investigate and estimate sibling effects. Indirect genetic effects of siblings increase (or decrease) the covariance between genetic variation and a phenotype. It follows that differences in genetic association estimates between singletons and non-singletons could indicate indirect genetic effects of siblings if there is no heterogeneity in other sources of genetic association between singletons and non-singletons. We used UK Biobank data to estimate polygenic score (PGS) associations for height, BMI and educational attainment in self-reported singletons (N = 50,143) and non-singletons (N = 328,549). The educational attainment PGS association estimate was 12% larger (95% C.I. 3%, 21%) in the non-singleton sample than in the singleton sample, but the height and BMI PGS associations were consistent. Birth order data suggested that the difference in educational attainment PGS associations was driven by individuals with older siblings rather than firstborns. The relationship between number of siblings and educational attainment PGS associations was non-linear; PGS associations were 24% smaller in individuals with 6 or more siblings compared to the rest of the sample (95% C.I. 11%, 38%). We estimate that a 1 SD increase in sibling educational attainment PGS corresponds to a 0.025 year increase in the index individual’s years in schooling (95% C.I. 0.013, 0.036). Our results suggest that older siblings may influence the educational attainment of younger siblings, adding to the growing evidence that effects of the environment on phenotypic variation partially reflect social effects of germline genetic variation in relatives.     

Bereavement after sibling death: a population‐based longitudinal case‐control study

The objective of this study was to examine mental disorders and treatment use among bereaved siblings in the general population. Siblings (N=7243) of all deceased children in the population of Manitoba, Canada who died between 1984 and 2009 were matched 1:3 to control siblings (N=21,729) who did not have a sibling die in the study period. Generalized estimating equations were used to compare the two sibling groups in the two years before and after the index child's death on physician‐diagnosed mental disorders and treatment utilization, with adjustment for confounding factors including pre‐existing mental illness. Analyses were stratified by age of the bereaved (<13 vs. 13+). Results revealed that, in the two years after the death of the child, bereaved siblings had significantly higher rates of mental disorders than control siblings, even after adjusting for pre‐existing mental illness. When comparing the effect of a child's death on younger versus older siblings, the rise in depression rates from pre‐death to post‐death was significantly higher for siblings aged under 13 (p<0.0001), increasing more than 7‐fold (adjusted relative rate, ARR=7.25, 95% CI: 3.65‐14.43). Bereaved siblings aged 13+ had substantial morbidity in the two years after the death: 25% were diagnosed with a mental disorder (vs. 17% of controls), and they had higher rates of almost all mental disorder outcomes compared to controls, including twice the rate of suicide attempts (ARR=2.01, 95% CI: 1.29‐3.12). Siblings in the bereaved cohort had higher rates of alcohol and drug use disorders already before the death of their sibling. In conclusion, the death of a child is associated with considerable mental disorder burden among surviving siblings. Pre‐existing health problems and social disadvantage do not fully account for the increase in mental disorder rates.     

Sib‐sib communication and the risk of prey theft in the barn owl Tyto alba

Conflicts among siblings are widespread and their resolution involves complex physical and communication tools. Observations in the barn owl Tyto alba showed that siblings vocally communicate in the absence of parents to negotiate priority of access to the impending food resources that parents will bring. In the present paper, we hypothesize and provide correlative evidence that after a parent brought a food item to their progeny, sibling competition involves vocal sib‐sib communication. A food item takes a long time to be entirely consumed, and hence siblings continue to compete over prey monopolization even after parents gave a food item to a single offspring. When physical competition is pronounced and thereby the risk of prey theft is high, the individual that received a prey item consumes it in a concealed place. Concomitantly, nestlings vocalize intensely probably to indicate their motivation to siblings to not share their food item, since this vocal behaviour was particularly frequent in younger individuals for which the risk of being robbed is higher than in their older siblings. Furthermore, nestlings consumed more rapidly a food item when their siblings vocalized intensely presumably because the intensity of siblings’ vocalizations is associated with a risk of prey theft. Our correlative study suggests that sibling competition favoured the evolution of sib‐sib communication under a wide range of situations.     

Evidence of intralocus sexual conflict: physically and hormonally masculine individuals have more attractive brothers relative to sisters

Intralocus sexual conflict (IASC) occurs when sex-specific selection favors genes that increase fitness in one sex and decrease fitness in the other sex. The current study was designed to explore whether IASC occurs in humans. In a sample of siblings, we identified and measured sexually dimorphic traits and hormones within each sex that are related to fitness and are likely coded for by antagonistic genes: waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and breast size in women, WHR and bicep size (an index of muscularity) in men, and estradiol (E) and testosterone (T) in both sexes. If these traits and hormones are coded for by genes under IASC, masculine or feminine expression of traits and hormones should differentially predict brothers' and sisters' fitness. Consistent with an IASC model, both men and women who were physically masculine for their sex reported higher mate value brothers relative to sisters. Similarly, in normal-weight individuals, E levels positively predicted the mate value of sisters relative to brothers and T levels positively predicted the mate value of brothers relative to sisters. We found no evidence that individuals with indicators of high genetic quality (i.e., physically masculine men and physically feminine women) share high mate value with all siblings, regardless of sibling sex. Results are novel and demonstrate for the first time that intralocus conflict in humans may influence the fitness of related individuals.     

Patrilineal family values,family planning and variation in stature among Taiwanese six-year-olds

It has been argued that patrilineal joint family systems tend to bias family planning decisions in favour of sons. A simple model suggests that in such societies, any given son will be more highly valued by his parents (1) the fewer his brothers and (2) the earlier his birth is in the brother series. A daughter's value will be greater (1) the fewer brothers she has and (2) the earlier her birth is relative to other sisters. This study first addresses the extent of son preference as inferred from family composition data for 772 Taiwanese first-graders born in the mid-1970s in two socioeconomically distinct communities in Taipei, Taiwan. It then uses linear regression to consider whether the model criteria help account for statural variation among children in each study area when controlling for differences in measurement age, parental education and housing. With respect to family composition and gender preference, available evidence was consistent with previous surveys. While better-educated parents in the more affluent study area had significantly fewer children (p < 0.0005) and were more willing to stop without a son, girls there, as in the less affluent area, were still significantly more likely than boys to belong to large sibships (p < or = 0.005). Evidence from mean height of males and females partially accords with hypothetical predictions. In the less affluent area, the interaction effect of male birth order and the presence of younger siblings was significantly associated with mean stature (p = 0.002). Males without brothers were 2.0 cm taller than males with either an older or a younger brother (116.3 +/- 0.5 cm vs 114.3 +/- 0.4 cm). Males who had both younger and older brothers, but often no sisters, were about as tall, however, as those without brothers. A similar, but less pronounced, pattern was found among males in the more affluent area, but only among those who had sisters. These boys were also consistently shorter than boys without sisters (115.6 +/- 0.6 cm vs 117.7 +/- 0.6 cm; p = 0.001). Patterns of mean female stature did not clearly support the hypothesis. Girls in the more affluent area were relatively tall and did not show significant variation. Results among less affluent girls showed significant contrasts, but not necessarily in the predicted direction.     

Effect of kinship on social behaviors in Brandt's voles (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Microtus brandti</Emphasis>)

The roles of kinship in agonistic behavior and mate choice were evaluated in Brandt's voles (Microtus brandti). In chambers bedded with familiar or unfamiliar substrates, the aggressive behavior and social investigation towards adult unfamiliar same-sex siblings and non-siblings were examined, and no significant kin bias was found. Males sniffed and followed unfamiliar unrelated females significantly more than unfamiliar sibling sisters, but males did not show significant preferences in copulatory behavior and agonistic behavior. Females spent significantly more time copulating with unfamiliar unrelated males than with their unfamiliar sibling brothers, while they did not show a significant preference in social investigation between them. Our study shows that kinship might play a role in the inbreeding avoidance based on preweaning familiarity or/and phenotype matching, but the role of kinship in agonistic behavior remains unclear.     

Early predictors of life-history events: the link between first feeding date, dominance and seaward migration in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L.

Previous studies have suggested that the earliest fry to emerge from a salmonid redd may have an advantage in the subsequent competition for feeding sites, partly through a 'prior residence' effect. Here we examined whether there was any relationship between the relative date of first feeding and subsequent dominance status and growth in a sibling group of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., fry. Earlier-feeding fry were dominant over their later-feeding siblings (controlling for prior residence), despite not being any larger. However, these early fish soon established and then maintained a size advantage. This led to an increased probability of early-feeding fish migrating to sea at age 1 year (rather than 2 or more). Thus a difference of less than 1 week in the relative timing of first feeding can translate into a year's difference in the timing of migration.     

The problem of peers in Vietnamese interaction

In Vietnamese, address (second‐person reference) is typically accomplished by the use of a kin term regardless of whether the talk's recipient is a genealogical relative or not. All Vietnamese kin terms encode a specification of either relative age or relative generation of participants, and there are no reciprocal terms akin to English ‘brother’ or ‘sister’; rather, a speaker must select between terms such as ‘older brother’ (anh) or ‘younger sibling’ (em). Since generation is normatively associated with a difference in age, the result is a ubiquitous indexing of age and status hierarchies in all acts of address. This results in a problem for peers. How, in such a system, should they address one another (and also self‐refer)? In this article, we describe the various practices that speakers use to subvert the system and thus avoid indexing differences of age or station. Specifically, we describe four practices: (1) the use of true pronouns in address and self‐reference; (2) the use of proper names in address and self‐reference; (3) the use of kin terms in address and pronouns in self‐reference; and (4) the ironic use of kin terms in address. We conclude that the Vietnamese system well illustrates what is likely a universal tension between hierarchy and equality in acts of address and self‐reference, by showing how speakers deconstruct the vector of age and indicate that they consider one another peers. We further suggest that although the literature in this area has focused on the ways in which languages convey differences of status and rank, social order is built as much upon relations of parity and sameness – on identification of the other as neither higher nor lower than me – as it is upon relations of hierarchy.