A probe of the active site acidity of carboxypeptidase A

The substrate analogue 2-(1-carboxy-2-phenylethyl)-4-phenylazophenol is a potent competitive inhibitor of carboxypeptidase A. Upon ligation to the active site, the azophenol moiety undergoes a shift of pKa from a value of 8.76 to a value of 4.9; this provides an index of the Lewis acidity of the active site zinc ion. Examination of the pH dependence of Ki for the inhibitor shows maximum effectiveness in neutral solution (limiting Ki = 7.6 X 10(-7) M), with an increase in Ki in acid (pK1 = 6.16) and in alkaline solution (pK2 = 9.71, pK3 = 8.76). It is concluded that a proton-accepting enzymic functional group with the lower pKa (6.2) controls inhibitor binding, that ionization of this group is also manifested in the hydrolysis of peptide substrates (kcat/Km), and that the identity of this group is the water molecule that binds to the active site metal ion in the uncomplexed enzyme (H2OZn2+L3). Reverse protonation state inhibition is demonstrated, and conventional concepts regarding the mechanism of peptide hydrolysis by the enzyme are brought into question.     

Kinetic studies of wheat carboxypeptidase-catalyzed reaction: differences in pressure and temperature dependence of peptidase and esterase activities

A kinetic study of hydrolytic catalysis by wheat bran carboxypeptidase (carboxypeptidase W) was carried out using 3-(2-furyl)acryloyl-acylated (Fua-) synthetic substrates. This enzyme showed high esterase activity in addition to the intrinsic carboxypeptidase activity. The optimum pH for the peptidase activity (kcat/Km) was at pH 3.3 and the kcat/Km value decreased with increasing pH with an apparent pKa of 4.50, while the esterase activity increased with pH up to pH 8 with an apparent pKa of 6.04. Optimum pH's for kcat for the peptidase and esterase reactions were also very different and their apparent pKa values were 3.80 and 6.15, respectively. From a measurement of the pressure dependences of kcat and Km, the activation volumes (delta V not equal to) and reaction volumes (delta V), respectively, were determined. delta V not equal to for kcat was -7 to -8 ml/mol for peptidase and -2 to -3 ml/mol for esterase. These results lead us to propose that the peptidase and esterase activities of carboxypeptidase W are different not in the rate-determining steps in a common reaction pathway, but in the binding modes and/or catalytic site(s).     

Specificity and pH dependence for acylproline cleavage by prolidase

Catalytic pH dependence for the hydrolytic activity of the enzyme prolidase with a series of dipeptide substrates is found to be generally bell-shaped (kcat/Km) or simple sigmoidal (kcat). An enzymic residue with a pKa value of 6.6 is found to be critically involved in the catalytic mechanism, as is the substrate amino group. Significant catalysis at a pH of 6.6 is also observed for prolidase with (alkylthio)acetylprolines and with haloacetylprolines. A reverse-protonation state mechanism for substrate binding and activation is postulated, involving a chelative interaction of the aminoacylamide portion of substrate with a strongly Lewis-acidic active site metal ion.     

Kinetic study of carboxypeptidase P-catalyzed reaction. Pressure and temperature dependence of kinetic parameters

Detailed kinetic analyses of carboxypeptidase P-catalyzed reactions were carried out spectrophotometrically using 3-(2-furyl)acryloyl-acylated peptide substrates. The maximum kcat/Km was observed at around pH 3.5 for the synthetic peptide substrates. The kcat/Km value decreased with increasing pH, with an apparent pKa value of 4.43. However, the maximum kcat was observed at neutral pH (pH congruent to 6) and the pKa was 4.49. These apparently different pH profiles for kcat/Km and kcat of this enzyme were due to the decreasing Km value in the acid pH region. The pressure and temperature dependences of these kinetic parameters were also measured. N-Benzoylglycyl-L-phenyllactate (Bz-Gly-OPhLac) gave dependences similar to those of the peptide substrate, suggesting that there is no distinct difference in the catalytic mechanism between the peptide and the ester hydrolyses.     

Catalytic role of the metal ion of carboxypeptidase A in ester hydrolysis.

The mechanism of action of bovine pancreatic carboxypeptidase. Aalpha (peptidyl-L-amino acid hydrolase; EC 3.4.12.2) has been investigated by application of cryoenzymologic methods. Kinetic studies of the hydrolysis of the specific ester substrate O-(trans-p-chlorocinnamoyl)-L-beta-phenyllactate have been carried out with both the native and the Co2+-substituted enzyme in the 25 to --45 degrees C temperature range. In the --25 to --45 degrees C temperature range with enzyme in excess, a biphasic reaction is observed for substrate hydrolysis characterized by rate constants for the fast (kf) and the slow (ks) processes. In Arrhenius plots, ks extrapolates to kcat at 25 degrees C for both enzymes in aqueous solution, indicating that the same catalytic rate-limiting step is observed. The slow process is analyzed for both metal enzymes, as previously reported (Makinen, M. W., Yamamura, K., and Kaiser, E. T. (1976) Proc Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 73, 3882-3886), to involve the deacylation of a mixed anhydride acyl-enzyme intermediate. Near --60 degrees C the acyl-enzyme intermediate of both metal enzymes can be stabilized for spectral characterization. The pH and temperature dependence of ks reveals a catalytic ionizing group with a metal ion-dependent shift in pKa and an enthalpy of ionization of 7.2 kcal/mol for the native enzyme and 6.2 kcal/mol for the Co2+ enzyme. These parameters identify the ionizing catalytic group as the metal-bound water molecule. Extrapolation of the pKa data to 25 degrees C indicates that this ionization coincides with that observed in the acidic limb of the pH profile of log(kcat/Km(app)) for substrate hydrolysis under steady state conditions. The results indicate that in the esterolytic reaction of carboxypeptidase. A deacylation of the mixed anhydride intermediate is catalyzed by a metal-bound hydroxide group.     

Aminoacylase I from hog kidney: anion effects and the pH dependence of kinetic parameters

The hydrolysis of acetylamino acids by highly purified hog kidney aminoacylase I (N-acylamino acid amidohydrolase, EC 3.5.1.14) was investigated using flow injection analysis to determine reaction rates. We show that the distinctly bell-shaped pH versus activity profiles observed in previous studies do not reflect protonic equilibria in the enzyme, but were created by buffer effects. At low pH, anions such as phosphate, nitrate or chloride markedly increase Km. These effects are reversed at higher pH. In zwitterionic 'Good' buffers (Mes, Mops, and Bicine), maximal velocities are almost independent of pH between 6.5 and 9 for all substrates studied (Ac-LAla, Ac-LGlu, Ac-LMet, Ac-LPhe). Below pH 6.5, the catalytic constants decrease with pH, apparently due to the protonation of a carboxylate with a pKa of 5.5-6. The pH dependence of Km markedly varies among different substates. We conclude that the observed profiles all result from the dissociation of an active-site residue with a pKa of 8-8.5, which we tentatively identify as an active-site cysteine residue. A working model of aminoacylase catalysis is presented that accounts for most of the known facts.     

Characterization of proline endopeptidase from rat brain

A homogeneous proline endopeptidase from rat brain is characterized with respect to its substrate specificity and the residues essential for catalysis. The two fluorogenic substrate analogues tested, pyroglutamylhistidylprolyl-beta-naphthylamide and pyroglutamy(N-benzylimidazolyl)-histidylprolyl-beta-naphthylamide, have higher Vmax values (19.5 and 26.9 mumol . min-1 . mg-1, respectively) and considerably lower Km values (0.034 and 0.020 mM, respectively) than pyroglutamylhistidylprolylamide (Vmax = 2.9 mumol . min-1 . mg-1 and Km = 4.1 mM). Both fluorogenic substrates give rise to pH optima and pH-rate profiles similar to those of the amide. Values of Km and kcat are determined as a function of pH. Km is pH independent, with the titration curve for kcatKm-1 implicating an active-site residue(s) with a pKa of 6.2. Proline endopeptidase can be completely inactivated by low concentrations of diisopropyl fluorophosphate with an observed second-order rate constant of 2.5 x 10(4) min-1 . M-1. The stoichiometry of the alkylphosphorylation is 0.83 mol/mol of enzyme. The pH dependence of the inactivation by diisopropylfluorophosphate implicates a residue(s) involved in covalent bond formation having a pKa of 6.0. These data suggest that proline endopeptidase is a serine proteinase.     

Catalytic mechanism of scytalone dehydratase: site-directed mutagenisis, kinetic isotope effects, and alternate substrates.

On the basis of the X-ray crystal structure of scytalone dehydratase complexed with an active center inhibitor [Lundqvist, T., Rice, J., Hodge, C. N., Basarab, G. S., Pierce, J. and Lindqvist, Y. (1994) Structure (London) 2, 937-944], eight active-site residues were mutated to examine their roles in the catalytic mechanism. All but one residue (Lys73, a potential base in an anti elimination mechanism) were found to be important to catalysis or substrate binding. Steady-state kinetic parameters for the mutants support the native roles for the residues (Asn131, Asp31, His85, His110, Ser129, Tyr30, and Tyr50) within a syn elimination mechanism. Relative substrate specificities for the two physiological substrates, scytalone and veremelone, versus a Ser129 mutant help assign the orientation of the substrates within the active site. His85Asn was the most damaging mutation to catalysis consistent with its native roles as a general base and a general acid in a syn elimination. The additive effect of Tyr30Phe and Tyr50Phe mutations in the double mutant is consistent with their roles in protonating the substrate's carbonyl through a water molecule. Studies on a synthetic substrate, which has an anomeric carbon atom which can better stabilize a carbocation than the physiological substrate (vermelone), suggest that His110Asn prefers this substrate over vermelone in order to balance the mutation-imposed weakness in promoting the elimination of hydroxide from substrates. All mutant enzymes bound a potent active-site inhibitor in near 1:1 stoichiometry, thereby supporting their active-site integrity. An X-ray crystal structure of the Tyr50Phe mutant indicated that both active-site waters were retained, likely accounting for its residual catalytic activity. Steady-state kinetic parameters with deuterated scytalone gave kinetic isotope effects of 2.7 on kcat and 4.2 on kcat/Km, suggesting that steps after dehydration partially limit kcat. Pre-steady-state measurements of a single-enzyme turnover with scytalone gave a rate that was 6-fold larger than kcat. kcat/Km with scytalone has a pKa of 7.9 similar to the pKa value for the ionization of the substrate's C6 phenolic hydroxyl, whereas kcat was unaffected by pH, indicating that the anionic form of scytalone does not bind well to enzyme. With an alternate substrate having a pKa above 11, kcat/Km had a pKa of 9.3 likely due to the ionization of Tyr50. The non-enzyme-catalyzed rate of dehydration of scytalone was nearly a billion-fold slower than the enzyme-catalyzed rate at pH 7.0 and 25 degrees C. The non-enzyme-catalyzed rate of dehydration of scytalone had a deuterium kinetic isotope effect of 1.2 at pH 7.0 and 25 degrees C, and scytalone incorporated deuterium from D2O in the C2 position about 70-fold more rapidly than the dehydration rate. Thus, scytalone dehydrates through an E1cb mechanism off the enzyme.     

Zinc and cadmium 5-aminolevulinate dehydratase. Metal-dependent pH profiles

Native 5-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase contains zinc ions, which are essential for the enzymatic activity. Replacement of zinc by cadmium yielded an active enzyme whose kinetic parameters (kkat and Km) are similar to those of the zinc enzyme in the neutral pH range. However, the pH profiles of kcat and Km were different due to different pKa values. Two groups both with pKa values of 6.5 in the free zinc enzyme, but with pKa values of 7.0 in the cadmium enzyme were calculated from plots of log (kcat/Km) versus pH. On the other hand, the enzyme-substrate complex is controlled by one acidic group (zinc pKa = 6.0, cadmium pKa = 6.4) and one basis group (zinc pKa = 8.2, cadmium pKa = 7.7) as calculated from plots of log kcat versus pH. The Arrhenius plots for kcat of the two enzymes show no significant difference, the free energies of activation are 77.1 kJ/mol for the zinc and 76.8 kJ/mol for the cadmium enzyme. From this and from previous work it is concluded that the metal ions are located near the active site and influence the ionisations of essential amino acid residues. From the pH profiles of the modifying reaction and inhibition by diethylpyrocarbonate a histidinyl residue is inferred as one of the ionisable groups of the active site.     

Variation in the steady state kinetic parameters of wild type and mutant T5 5'-3'-exonuclease with pH. Protonation of Lys-83 is critical for DNA binding.

T5 5'-3'-exonuclease is a member of a family of homologous 5'-nucleases essential for DNA replication and repair. We have measured the variation of the steady state parameters of the enzyme with pH. The log of the association constant of the enzyme and substrate is pH-independent between pH 5 and 7, but at higher pH, it decreases (gradient -0.91 +/- 0.1) with increasing pH. The log of the turnover number increases (gradient 0.9 +/- 0.01) with increasing pH until a pH-independent plateau is reached. The T5 5'-3'-exonuclease-catalyzed reaction requires the protonation of a single residue for substrate binding, whereas kcat depends on a single deprotonation as demonstrated by the bell-shaped dependence of log (kcat/Km) on pH. To investigate the role of a conserved lysine (Lys-83), the pH profile of log (kcat/Km) of a K83A mutant was determined and found to increase with pH (gradient 1.01 +/- 0. 01) until a pH-independent plateau is reached. We therefore conclude that protonation of Lys-83 in the wild type protein facilitates DNA binding. The origin of the pH dependence of the kcat parameter of the wild type enzyme is discussed.     

Studies on the aminopeptidase activity of rat cathepsin H.

Three synthetic substrates H-Arg-NH-Mec, Bz-Arg-NH-Mec and H-Cit-NH-Mec (Bz, Benzoyl; NH-Mec, 4-methylcoumaryl-7-amide; Cit, citrulline) were used to characterize specificity requirements for the P1-S1 interaction of cathepsin H from rat liver. From rapid equilibrium kinetic studies it was shown that Km, kcat and the specificity constants kcat/Km are quite similar for substrates with a free alpha-amino group. In contrast, a 25-fold decrease of kcat/Km was observed for the N-terminal-blocked substrate Bz-Arg-NH-Mec. The activation energies for H-Arg-NH-Mec and Bz-Arg-NH-Mec were determined to be 37 kJ/mol and 55 kJ/mol, respectively, and the incremental binding energy delta delta Gb of the charged alpha-amino group was estimated to -8.1 kJ/mol at pH 6.8. The shown preference of cathepsin H for the unblocked substrates H-Arg-NH-Mec and H-Cit-NH-Mec was further investigated by inspection of the pH dependence of kcat/Km. The curves of the two substrates with a charged alpha-amino group showed identical bell-shaped profiles which both exhibit pKa1 and pKa2 values of 5.5 and 7.4, respectively, at 30 degrees C. The residue with a pKa1 of 5.5 in the acid limb of the activity profile of H-Arg-NH-Mec was identified by its ionization enthalpy delta Hion = 21 kJ/mol as a beta-carboxylate or gamma-carboxylate of the enzyme, whereas the residue with a pKa2 of 7.4 was assigned to the free alpha-amino group of the substrate with a delta Hion of 59 kJ/mol. Bz-Arg-NH-Mec showed a different pH-activity profile with a pKa1 of 5.4 and a pKa2 of 6.6 at 30 degrees C. Cathepsin H exhibits no preference for a basic P1 side chain as has been shown by the similar kinetics of H-Arg-NH-Mec and the uncharged, isosteric substrate H-Cit-NH-Mec. In summary, specific interactions of an anionic cathepsin H active site residue with the charged alpha-amino group of substrates caused transition state stabilization which proves the enzyme to act preferentially as an aminopeptidase.     

Estimation of deuteration levels in whole cells and cellular proteins by 1H n.m.r. spectroscopy and neutron scattering.

For bovine erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase (acetylcholine hydrolase, EC 3.1.1.7), the Michaelis parameters Vmax., and Km for the natural substrate acetylcholine were estimated as a function of pH and sodium chloride concentration by the pH-stat method. A single dissociation constant for Na+ binding (K = 7 X 10(-3) M) suffices to explain the salt dependence of Vmax./Km and of Km as well as the pH dependence of Vmax./Km and Vmax., Km being pH independent. This finding provides evidence for a specific effect of Na+, presumably by binding at the anionic subsite of the active centre. Na+ binding causes a 50-fold decrease in kcat./Km as well as a decrease of one unit in the pKa of both kcat./Km and kcat.. The intrinsic pKa in the absence of salt at 25 degrees C is about 7.5. Comparison of the degree of fit of the data to the Debeye-Huckel equation, in accordance with an alternative general salt effect, as well as published data for sodium and potassium chlorides also favour a specific salt effect.     

Site-directed mutagenesis of the ionizable groups in the active site of Zymomonas mobilis pyruvate decarboxylase: effect on activity and pH dependence.

Pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC, EC 4.1.1.1) is a thiamin diphosphate-dependent enzyme about which there is a large body of structural and functional information. The active site contains several absolutely conserved ionizable groups and all of these appear to be important, as judged by the fact that mutation diminishes or abolishes catalytic activity. Previously we have shown [Schenk, G., Leeper, F.J., England, R., Nixon, P.F. & Duggleby, R.G. (1997) Eur. J. Biochem. 248, 63-71] that the activity is pH-dependent due to changes in kcat/Km while kcat itself is unaffected by pH. The effect on kcat/Km is determined by a group with a pKa of 6.45; the identity of this group has not been determined, although H113 is a possible candidate. Here we mutate five crucial residues in the active site with ionizable side-chains (D27, E50, H113, H114 and E473) in turn, to residues that are nonionizable or should have a substantially altered pKa. Each protein was purified and characterized kinetically. Unexpectedly, the pH-dependence of kcat/Km is largely unaffected in all mutants, ruling out the possibility that any of these five residues is responsible for the observed pKa of 6.45. We conjecture that the kcat/Km profile reflects the protonation of an alcoholate anion intermediate of the catalytic cycle.     

Mechanistic studies on thrombin catalysis

The kinetic mechanism of the cleavage of four p-nitroanilide (pNA) substrates by human alpha-thrombin has been investigated by using a number of steady-state kinetic techniques. Solvent isotope and viscosity effects were used to determine the stickiness of the substrates at the pH optimum of the reaction; a sticky substrate is defined as one that undergoes catalysis faster than it dissociates from the Michaelis complex. Whereas benzoyl-Arg-pNA could be classified as a nonsticky substrate, D-Phe-pipecolyl-Arg-pNA was very sticky. The other two substrates (tosyl-Gly-Pro-Arg-pNA and acetyl-D-Phe-pipecolyl-Arg-pNA) were slightly sticky. The pH profiles of kcat/Km were bell-shaped for all substrates. The pKa values determined from the pH dependence of kcat/Km for benzoyl-Arg-pNA were about 7.5 and 9.1. Similar pKa values were determined from the pH profiles of kcat/Km for tosyl-Gly-Pro-Arg-pNA and acetyl-D-Phe-pipecolyl-Arg-pNA and for the binding of the competitive inhibitor N alpha-dansyl-L-arginine-4-methylpiperidine amide. The groups responsible for the observed pKa values were proposed to be His57 and the alpha-amino group of Ile16. The temperature dependence of the pKa values was consistent with this assignment. The pKa values of 6.7 and 8.6 observed in the pH profile of kcat/Km for D-Phe-pipecolyl-Arg-pNA were displaced to lower values than those observed for the other substrates. The displacement of the acidic pKa value could be attributed to the stickiness of this substrate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Lipoamide dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli. Steady-state kinetics of the physiological reaction

Lipoamide dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli operates qualitatively by the same mechanism as the enzyme from pig heart. It has been suggested that quantitative differences between the two, in particular the marked inhibition of the bacterial enzyme by its product NADH, are related to the fact that the E. coli enzyme lacks the phosphorylation/dephosphorylation control present in the mammalian enzyme (Wilkinson, K. D., and Williams, C. H., Jr. (1981) J. Biol. Chem. 256, 2307-2314). Because of the inhibition by NADH, the kinetics of the E. coli enzyme have not been studied previously in the physiological direction with the natural substrate, dihydrolipoamide. We have now measured the steady-state kinetics of the oxidation of dihydrolipoamide by NAD+ using the stopped-flow technique to follow only the early time course. The pH dependence of kcat revealed an apparent pKa value of 6.7, reflecting ionization(s) of the enzyme-substrate complex. The pH dependence of kcat/Km gave an apparent pKa of 7.4 reflecting ionization(s) of the free 2-electron-reduced enzyme. The inhibition pattern for NADH was mixed, consistent with the fact that NADH is both a product inhibitor and inhibits by reducing a fraction of the enzyme to the catalytically inactive 4-electron-reduced state. There is a modest pH-dependent positive cooperativity in the saturation curve for NAD+ decreasing with increasing pH. Spectral changes in the 530 and 446 nm bands of the 2-electron-reduced enzyme, associated with the titration of the nascent thiols and the base, showed tentative pKa values of 6.4 and 7.1, respectively, in a pH jump experiment. The properties of the wild type E. coli enzyme can now be compared with those of several site-directed mutants.     

The kinetic behavior of chicken liver sulfite oxidase.

A comprehensive kinetic study of sulfite oxidase has been undertaken over the pH range 6.0-10.0, including conventional steady-state work as well as rapid kinetic studies of both the reaction of oxidized enzyme with sulfite and reduced enzyme with cytochrome c (III). A comparison of the pH dependence of kcat, kred, and kox indicates that kred is principally rate limiting above pH 7, but that below this pH the pH dependence of kcat is influenced by that of kox. The pH independence of kred is consistent with our previous proposal concerning the reaction mechanism, in which attack of the substrate lone pair of electrons on a Mo(VI)O2 unit initiates the catalytic sequence. The pH dependence of kred/Kdsulfite indicates that a group on the enzyme having a pKa of approximately 9.3 must be deprotonated for effective reaction of oxidized enzyme with sulfite, possibly Tyr 322, which from the crystal structure of the enzyme constitutes part of the substrate binding site. There is no evidence for the HSO3-/SO32- pKa of approximately 7 in the pH profile for kred/Kdsulfite, suggesting that enzyme is able to oxidize the two equally well. By contrast, kcat/Kmsulfite and kred/Kdsulfite exhibit distinct pH dependence (the former is bell-shaped, the latter sigmoidal), again consistent with the oxidative half-reaction contributing to the kinetic barrier to catalysis at low pH. The pH dependence of kcat/Km(cyt c) (reflecting the second-order rate of reaction of free enzyme with free cytochrome) is bell-shaped and closely resembles that of kox/Kd(cyt c), reflecting the importance of the oxidative half-reaction in the low substrate concentration regime. The pH profile for kox/Kd(cyt c) indicates that two groups with a pKa of approximately 8 are involved in the reaction of free reduced enzyme with cytochrome c, one of which must be deprotonated and the other protonated. These results are consistent with the known electrostatic nature of the interaction of cytochrome c with its physiological partners.     

Mechanistic aspects of the low-molecular-weight phosphatase activity of the calmodulin-activated phosphatase, calcineurin

Product and substrate analogs have been employed as inhibitors of the low-molecular-weight phosphatase activity of calcineurin, a calmodulin-activated protein phosphatase. Product inhibition kinetics demonstrate that both products, para-nitrophenol and inorganic phosphate, inhibit para-nitrophenyl phosphate hydrolysis in a competitive manner. Inorganic phosphate is a linear competitive inhibitor, whereas the inhibition by para-nitrophenol is more complex. An analog of para-nitrophenol, pentafluorophenol, was found to be a linear competitive inhibitor. These patterns indicate a rapid equilibrium random kinetic mechanism for calcineurin. This mechanism suggests that calcineurin does not generate a phosphoryl enzyme during its catalytic reaction. Application of sulfate analogs indicates that binding of substrate occurs via the phosphoryl moiety. It is suggested that binding is a function of the affinity of ligand for the metal ion involved in calcineurin action. The dependence of the kinetic parameters of calcineurin upon pH was examined to provide information concerning the role of protonation in the activity and specificity of calcineurin. Log (VM) versus pH data for two low-molecular-weight substrates, para-nitrophenyl phosphate and tyrosine-O-phosphate, reveal a pKa value for the enzyme-substrate complex. Analysis of log (VM/KM) data yields a pKa value for the free enzyme of 8.0. Protonation of the phenolic leaving group during hydrolysis is not the rate-limiting step in calcineurin catalysis.     

Energetics of ribonuclease A catalysis. 1. pH, ionic strength, and solvent isotope dependence of the hydrolysis of cytidine cyclic 2',3'-phosphate

The pH, ionic strength, and solvent deuterium isotope dependence of the steady-state kinetics of the ribonuclease A catalyzed hydrolysis of cytidine cyclic 2',3'-phosphate has been investigated by using, primarily, the technique of flow microcalorimetry to monitor the kinetics. The pH dependence of the Michaelis-Menten parameters has been analyzed by assuming the participation of His-12 and -119 of the enzyme and a third ionizing group, postulated to be on the pyrimidine ring of the substrate, to determine the pH-independent rate constant kc, and Michaelis constant Km. The reported pH analysis, together with existing NMR data and chemical modification studies, allows an assignment of the functional roles of His-12 and -119 as being those of general acid and general base catalytic residues, respectively. At high pH, the apparent Km value is found to increase to unity. This drop in affinity between the enzyme and the substrate at high pH indicates that the substrate binds to the enzyme primarily through an electrostatic interaction with the active-site histidine residues, particularly His-12. The apparent absence of an interaction with the riboside portion of the substrate is suggested to be due to the fact that the substrate exists in a syn conformation about its glycosidic bond and thus cannot interact optimally with the enzyme's binding pocket. This will result in a relative destabilization of the enzyme-substrate complex, which can then be relieved upon the formation of the transition state. The ionic strength dependence of ribonuclease activity is shown to be primarily a result of its effect on the pKa of the histidine residues and a concomitant change in the value of Km.     

Human carboxypeptidase M. Purification and characterization of a membrane-bound carboxypeptidase that cleaves peptide hormones

A membrane-bound neutral carboxypeptidase B-like enzyme was solubilized from human placental microvilli with 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)-dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS) and purified to homogeneity by ion-exchange chromatography and affinity chromatography on arginine-Sepharose. It gave a single band on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with an apparent Mr of 62,000 with or without reduction. The enzyme is a glycoprotein as shown by its high affinity for concanavalin A-Sepharose and reduction in mass to 47,600 daltons after chemical deglycosylation. It has a neutral pH optimum, is activated by CoCl2, and inhibited by o-phenanthroline, 2-mercaptomethyl-3-guanidinoethylthiopropanoic acid, or cadmium acetate, indicating it is a metallopeptidase. The enzyme cleaves arginine or lysine from the COOH terminus of synthetic peptides (e.g. Bz-Gly-Arg, Bz-Gly-Lys, Bz-Ala-Lys, dansyl-Ala-Arg, where Bz is benzoyl and dansyl is 5-dimethylaminonaphthalene-1-sulfonyl) as well as from several biologically active substrates: dynorphin A(1-13), Met5-Arg6-enkephalin (Km = 46 microM, kcat = 934 min-1), bradykinin (Km = 16 microM, kcat = 147 min-1), Met5-Lys6-enkephalin (Km = 375 microM, kcat = 663 min-1), and Leu5-Arg6-enkephalin (Km = 63 microM, kcat = 106 min-1). Although the enzyme shares some properties with other carboxypeptidase B-like enzymes, it is structurally, catalytically, and immunologically distinct from pancreatic carboxypeptidase A or B, human plasma carboxypeptidase N, and carboxypeptidase H ("enkephalin convertase"). To denote that the enzyme is membrane-bound, and to distinguish it from other known carboxypeptidases, we propose the name "carboxypeptidase M." Because of its localization on the plasma membrane and optimal activity at neutral pH, carboxypeptidase M could inactivate or modulate the activity of peptide hormones either before or after their interaction with plasma membrane receptors.     

Characterization of an inhibitory metal binding site in carboxypeptidase A

The specificity of metal ion inhibition of bovine carboxypeptidase A ([(CPD)Zn]) catalysis is examined under stopped-flow conditions with use of the fluorescent peptide substrate Dns-Gly-Ala-Phe. The enzyme is inhibited competitively by Zn(II), Pb(II), and Cd(II) with apparent KI values of 2.4 x 10(-5), 4.8 x 10(-5), and 1.1 x 10(-2) M in 0.5 M NaCl at pH 7.5 and 25 degrees C. The kcat/Km value, 7.3 x 10(6) M-1 s-1, is affected less than 10% at 1 x 10(-4) M Mn(II) or Cu(II) and at 1 x 10(-2) M Co(II), Ni(II), Hg(II), or Pt(IV). Zn(II) and Pb(II) are mutually exclusive inhibitors. Previous studies of the pH dependence of Zn(II) inhibition [Larsen, K. S., & Auld, D. S. (1989) Biochemistry 28, 9620] indicated that [(CPD)Zn] is selectively inhibited by a zinc monohydroxide complex, ZnOH+, and that ionization of a ligand, LH, in the enzyme's inhibitory site (pKLH 5.8) is obligatory for its binding. The present study allows further definition of this inhibitory zinc site. The ionizable ligand (LH) is assigned to Glu-270, since specific chemical modification of this residue decreases the binding affinity of [(CPD)Zn] for Zn(II) and Pb(II) by more than 60- and 200-fold, respectively. A bridging interaction between the Glu-270-coordinated metal hydroxide and the catalytic metal ion is implicated from the ability of Zn(II) and Pb(II) to induce a perturbation in the electronic absorption spectrum of cobalt carboxypeptidase A ([(CPD)Co]).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)