Efficient gene targeting in the filamentous fungusAlternaria alternata

To characterize homologous recombination of transforming DNA in the filamentous fungusAlternaria alternata, we have compared the frequencies of gene targeting by circular and linear DNA fragments in the fungus. TheA. alternata BRM1 gene, which is an essential gene for melanin biosynthesis, was selected as a target locus.BRM1 targeting events are easily identified because loss of function leads to a change in mycelial color from black to light brown. We constructed targeting vectors by inserting 0.6 to 3.1 kb internalBRM1 segments into a plasmid containing the hygromycin B phosphotransferase gene. When circular plasmids were used, melanin-deficient (Me1^?) transformants accounted for 30 to 80% of hygromycin B-resistant (Hy^R) transformants, correlating closely with the size of theBRM1 segment in the transforming DNA. Restriction enzyme digestion within theBRM1 region greatly enhanced the frequency of gene targeting: integration of the linear plasmids was almost completely attributable to homologous recombination, regardless of the size of theBRM1 segments. Plasmids carrying bothBRM1 segments and rDNA segments were transformed into the fungus to examine the effect of the number of target copies on homologous recombination. Using the circular plasmids, Me1^? transformants accounted for only 5% of Hy^R transformants. In contrast, when the linear plasmid produced by restriction enzyme digestion within theBRM1 segment was used, almost all transformants were Me1^?. These results indicate that homologous integration of circular molecules inA. alternata is sensitive to the length of homology and the number of targets, and that double-strand breaks in transforming DNA greatly enhance homologous recombination.     

Efficient gene targeting in the filamentous fungusAlternaria alternata

To characterize homologous recombination of transforming DNA in the filamentous fungusAlternaria alternata, we have compared the frequencies of gene targeting by circular and linear DNA fragments in the fungus. TheA. alternata BRM1 gene, which is an essential gene for melanin biosynthesis, was selected as a target locus.BRM1 targeting events are easily identified because loss of function leads to a change in mycelial color from black to light brown. We constructed targeting vectors by inserting 0.6 to 3.1 kb internalBRM1 segments into a plasmid containing the hygromycin B phosphotransferase gene. When circular plasmids were used, melanin-deficient (Me1^–) transformants accounted for 30 to 80% of hygromycin B-resistant (Hy^R) transformants, correlating closely with the size of theBRM1 segment in the transforming DNA. Restriction enzyme digestion within theBRM1 region greatly enhanced the frequency of gene targeting: integration of the linear plasmids was almost completely attributable to homologous recombination, regardless of the size of theBRM1 segments. Plasmids carrying bothBRM1 segments and rDNA segments were transformed into the fungus to examine the effect of the number of target copies on homologous recombination. Using the circular plasmids, Me1^– transformants accounted for only 5% of Hy^R transformants. In contrast, when the linear plasmid produced by restriction enzyme digestion within theBRM1 segment was used, almost all transformants were Me1^–. These results indicate that homologous integration of circular molecules inA. alternata is sensitive to the length of homology and the number of targets, and that double-strand breaks in transforming DNA greatly enhance homologous recombination.     

Analysis of Gene Targeting and Intrachromosomal Homologous Recombination Stimulated by Genomic Double-Strand Breaks in Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells

To investigate the effects of in vivo genomic DNA double-strand breaks on the efficiency and mechanisms of gene targeting in mouse embryonic stem cells, we have used a series of insertion and replacement vectors carrying two, one, or no genomic sites for the rare-cutting endonuclease I-SceI. These vectors were introduced into the hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (hprt) gene to produce substrates for gene-targeting (plasmid-to-chromosome) or intrachromosomal (direct repeat) homologous recombination. Recombination at the hprt locus is markedly increased following transfection with an I-SceI expression plasmid and a homologous donor plasmid (if needed). The frequency of gene targeting in clones with an I-SceI site attains a value of 1%, 5,000-fold higher than that in clones with no I-SceI site. The use of silent restriction site polymorphisms indicates that the frequencies with which donor plasmid sequences replace the target chromosomal sequences decrease with distance from the genomic break site. The frequency of intrachromosomal recombination reaches a value of 3.1%, 120-fold higher than background spontaneous recombination. Because palindromic insertions were used as polymorphic markers, a significant number of recombinants exhibit distinct genotypic sectoring among daughter cells from a single clone, suggesting the existence of heteroduplex DNA in the original recombination product.     

PCR-based gene targeting of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) locus in murine ES cells,a new and more cost-effective approach

Gene targeting by double homologous recombination in murine embryonic stem (ES) cells is a powerful tool used to study the cellular consequences of specific genetic mutations. A typical targeting construct consists of a neomycin phosphotransferase (neo) gene flanked by genomic DNA fragments that are homologous to sequences in the target chromosomal locus. Homologous DNA fragments are typically cloned from a murine genomic DNA library. Here we describe an alternative approach whereby the inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) gene locus is partially mapped and homologous DNA sequences obtained using a long-range PCR method. A 7 kb NOS2 amplicon is used to construct a targeting vector where theneo gene is flanked by PCR-derived homologous DNA sequences. The vector also includes a thymidine kinase (tk) negative-selectable marker gene. Following transfection into ES cells, the PCR-based targeting vector undergoes efficient homologous recombination into the NOS2 locus. Thus, PCR-based gene targeting can be a valuable alternative to the conventional cloning approach. It expedites the acquisition of homologous genomic DNA sequences and simplifies the construction of targeting plasmids by making use of defined cloning sites. This approach should result in substantial time and cost savings for appropriate homologous recombination projects.     

Gene Replacement with Linear DNA Fragments in Wild-Type Escherichia Coli: Enhancement by Chi Sites

During conjugation and transduction of Escherichia coli even numbers of recombinational exchanges are required for replacement of a gene on the circular chromosome. We studied gene replacement using a related method of gene transfer (transformation with 6.5-kb linear DNA fragments) as an experimental model for conjugation and transduction. Two properly situated Chi sites, 5' GCTGGTGG 3', stimulated gene replacement ~50-fold, more than the sum of the stimulation by the individual Chi sites. Gene replacement was dependent on RecA and RecB functions. Similar results were obtained with an alternative experimental model in which linear DNA fragments were generated from phage λ by intracellular EcoRI restriction following infection. Dual Chi site-stimulation of these RecA-, RecB-dependent recombination events thus did not depend upon the mode of delivery of the linear DNA into the cells. A single DNA fragment with two Chi sites was sufficient for gene replacement. These results support a one Chi-one exchange hypothesis (``long chunk' gene replacement), stemming from studies with purified RecBCD enzyme, and argue against models in which Chi converts RecBCD enzyme to a state capable of promoting multiple exchanges on one DNA molecule. These results also provide a method for gene targeting in wild-type E. coli and suggest a method for gene targeting in other organisms.     

Construction of GFP vectors for use in Gram-negative bacteria other than Escherichia coli

Abstract A set of vectors containing a mutated gfp gene was constructed for use with Gram-negative bacteria other than Escherichia coli . These constructs were: pTn 3gfp for making random promoter probe gfp insertions into cloned DNA in E. coli for subsequent introduction into host strains; pUTmini-Tn 5gfp for making random promoter probe gfp insertions directly into host strains; p519 gfp and p519 ngfp , broad host range mob ⁺ plasmids containing gfp from a lac and an npt 2 promoter, respectively.     

Rapid and efficient subcloning of DNA without dephosphorylation or gel electrophoresis

Conventional subcloning into plasmid vectors often involves dephosphorylation, gel electrophoresis, DNA extraction, and purification to isolate the target insert and the cleaved plasmid. This is not only time-consuming but very often problematic. We have developed strategies that can circumvent these steps by mixing digested donor and recipient plasmids together for ligation. These strategies capitalizes on: (1) the ability to enhance the ligation efficiency of desired DNA fragments into the target vector by the generation and removal of small (<50 bp) fragments from nontarget DNA using peripheral restriction sites and spin column technology and (2) the elimination of undesired ligation products after ligation by using the Lac Z gene, differences in antibiotic resistance among plasmid vectors, and unique restriction sites situated in nontarget DNA fragments.     

Genetic requirements for homologous recombination in Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus

It is known that baculovirus infection promotes high-frequency recombination between its genomes and plasmid DNA during the construction of recombinant viruses for foreign gene expression. However, little is known about the viral genes necessary to promote homologous recombination (HR). We developed an assay to identify viral genes that are necessary to stimulate HR. In this assay, we used two plasmids containing extensive sequence homology that yielded a visible and quantifiable phenotype if HR occurred. The plasmids contained the green fluorescent protein gene (gfp) that was mutated at either the N or the C terminus and a viral origin of DNA replication. When the plasmids containing these mutant gfp genes were transfected into insect cells alone or together, few green fluorescent protein (GFP)-positive cells were observed, confirming that the host cell machinery alone was not able to promote high levels of HR. However, if viral DNA or viral genes involved in DNA replication were cotransfected into cells along with the mutant gfp-containing plasmids, a dramatic increase in GFP-positive cells was observed. The viral genes ie-1, ie-2, lef-7, and p35 were found to be important for efficient HR in the presence of all other DNA replication genes. However, ie-1 and ie-2 were sufficient to promote HR in the absence of other viral genes. Recombination substrates lacking a viral origin of replication had similar genetic requirements for recombination but were less dependent on ie-1. Interestingly, even though HR was stimulated by the presence of a viral origin of DNA replication, virally stimulated HR could proceed in the presence of the DNA synthesis inhibitor aphidicolin.     

An Enhanced Gene Targeting Toolkit for Drosophila: Golic+

Ends-out gene targeting allows seamless replacement of endogenous genes with engineered DNA fragments by homologous recombination, thus creating designer “genes” in the endogenous locus. Conventional gene targeting in Drosophila involves targeting with the preintegrated donor DNA in the larval primordial germ cells. Here we report gene targeting during oogenesis with lethality inhibitor and CRISPR/Cas (Golic+), which improves on all major steps in such transgene-based gene targeting systems. First, donor DNA is integrated into precharacterized attP sites for efficient flip-out. Second, FLP, I-SceI, and Cas9 are specifically expressed in cystoblasts, which arise continuously from female germline stem cells, thereby providing a continual source of independent targeting events in each offspring. Third, a repressor-based lethality selection is implemented to facilitate screening for correct targeting events. Altogether, Golic+ realizes high-efficiency ends-out gene targeting in ovarian cystoblasts, which can be readily scaled up to achieve high-throughput genome editing.     

Targeted integration of neomycin into yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) for transfection into mammalian cells.

Vectors have been constructed for the introduction of the neomycin resistance gene (neo) into the left arm, right arm or human insert DNA of yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) by homologous recombination. These vectors contain a yeast selectable marker Lys-2, i.e. the alpha-aminoadipidate reductase gene, and a mammalian selection marker, neo, which confers G418 resistance. The vectors can be used to modify YACs in the most commonly used yeast strain for YAC library construction, AB1380. Specific targeting can be carried out by transfection of restriction endonuclease treated linear plasmids, with highly specific recombinogenic ends, into the YAC containing yeast cells. Analysis of targeted YACs confirmed that all three vectors can target correctly in yeast. Introduction of one of the targeted YACs into V79 (Chinese hamster fibroblast) cells showed complete and intact transfer of the YAC.     

人BRCA1 干涉慢病毒载体的构建与验证

目的:设计合成干涉BRCA1表达的小干扰RNA,并克隆入pLKO.1慢病毒表达载体,为研究基因BRCA1在乳腺癌细胞增殖中的作用提供基础。方法:根据人BRCA1的基因序列,设计合成三对BRCA1干涉片段(序列前后加入酶切位点EcoRI和AgeI),再利用酶切连接反应将其插入到慢病毒载体pLKO.1中,经过酶切鉴定及测序正确后,将重组质粒转染入MCF-7细胞,48h后提取蛋白质和RNA,通过蛋白印迹验证BRCA1的蛋白水平的表达情况,Realtime PCR验证BRCA1的RNA水平的表达变化。结果:重组质粒经酶切鉴定和测序比对完全正确,转染乳腺癌细胞48h后可见BRCA1表达的明显下调。结论:成功构建BRCA1干涉的慢病毒载体,并且转染MCF-7细胞证实其能够下调BRCA1的表达,为后续研究BRCA1在乳腺癌细胞的功能奠定了基础。     

Parameters controlling the rate of gene targeting frequency in the protozoan parasite Leishmania.

In this study we investigated the role of several parameters governing the efficiency of gene targeting mediated by homologous recombination in the protozoan parasite Leishmania. We evaluated the relative targeting frequencies of different replacement vectors designed to target several sequences within the parasite genome. We found that a decrease in the length of homologous sequences <1 kb on one arm of the vector linearly influences the targeting frequency. No homologous recombination was detected, however, when the flanking homologous regions were <180 bp. A requirement for a very high degree of homology between donor and target sequences was found necessary for efficient gene targeting in Leishmania , as targeted recombination was strongly affected by base pair mismatches. Targeting frequency increased proportionally with copy number of the target only when the target was part of a linear amplicon, but remained unchanged when it was present on circles. Different chromosomal locations were found to be targeted with significantly variable levels of efficiency. Finally, different strains of the same species showed differences in gene targeting frequency. Overall, gene targeting mediated by homologous recombination in Leishmania shares similarities to both the yeast and the mammalian recombination systems.     

Target frequency and integration pattern for insertion and replacement vectors in embryonic stem cells.

Gene targeting has been used to direct mutations into specific chromosomal loci in murine embryonic stem (ES) cells. The altered locus can be studied in vivo with chimeras and, if the mutated cells contribute to the germ line, in their offspring. Although homologous recombination is the basis for the widely used gene targeting techniques, to date, the mechanism of homologous recombination between a vector and the chromosomal target in mammalian cells is essentially unknown. Here we look at the nature of gene targeting in ES cells by comparing an insertion vector with replacement vectors that target hprt. We found that the insertion vector targeted up to ninefold more frequently than a replacement vector with the same length of homologous sequence. We also observed that the majority of clones targeted with replacement vectors did not recombine as predicted. Analysis of the recombinant structures showed that the external heterologous sequences were often incorporated into the target locus. This observation can be explained by either single reciprocal recombination (vector insertion) of a recircularized vector or double reciprocal recombination/gene conversion (gene replacement) of a vector concatemer. Thus, single reciprocal recombination of an insertion vector occurs 92-fold more frequently than double reciprocal recombination of a replacement vector with crossover junctions on both the long and short arms.     

Efficient PRNP gene targeting in bovine fibroblasts by adeno-associated virus vectors

Gene-targeted livestock can be created by combining ex vivo manipulation of cultured nuclear donor cells with cloning by nuclear transfer. However, this process can be limited by the low gene targeting frequencies obtained by transfection methods, and the limited ex vivo life span of the normal nuclear donor cells. We have developed an alternative gene targeting method based on the delivery of linear, single-stranded DNA molecules by adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, which can be used to introduce a variety of different mutations at single copy loci in normal human cells. Here we show that AAV vectors can efficiently target the PRNP gene encoding the prion protein PrP in bovine fetal fibroblasts, which can be used as nuclear donors to clone cattle. Cattle with both PRNP genes disrupted should be resistant to bovine spongiform encephalopathy.     

Parameters determining the efficiency of gene targeting in the moss Physcomitrella patens

In the moss Physcomitrella patens, transforming DNA containing homologous sequences integrates predominantly by homologous recombination with its genomic target. A systematic investigation of the parameters that determine gene targeting efficiency shows a direct relationship between homology length and targeting frequency for replacement vectors (a selectable marker flanked by homologous DNA). Overall homology of only 1 kb is sufficient to achieve a 50% yield of targeted transformants. Targeting may occur through homologous recombination in one arm, accompanied by non-homologous end-joining by the other arm of the vector, or by allele replacement following two homologous recombination events. Allele replacement frequency depends on the symmetry of the targeting vector, being proportional to the length of the shorter arm. Allele replacement may involve insertion of multiple copies of the transforming DNA, accompanied by ectopic insertions at non-homologous sites. Single-copy and single insertions at targeted loci (targeted gene replacements, ‘TGR’) occur with a frequency of 7–20% of all transformants when the minimum requirements for allele replacement are met. Homologous recombination in Physcomitrella is substantially more efficient than in any multicellular eukaryote, recommending it as the outstanding model for the study of homologous recombination in plants.     

Nested chromosomal fragmentation in yeast using the meganuclease I-Sce I: a new method for physical mapping of eukaryotic genomes.

We have developed a new method for the physical mapping of genomes and the rapid sorting of genomic libraries which is based on chromosome fragmentation by the meganuclease I-Sce I, the first available member of a new class of endonucleases with very long recognition sequences. I-Sce I allows complete cleavage at a single artificially inserted site in an entire genome. Sites can be inserted by homologous recombination using specific cassettes containing selectable markers or, at random, using transposons. This method has been applied to the physical mapping of chromosome XI (620 kb) of Saccharomyces cerevisi and to the sorting of a cosmid library. Our strategy has potential applications to various genome mapping projects. A set of transgenic yeast strains carrying the I-Sce I sites at various locations along a chromosome defines physical intervals against which new genes, DNA fragments or clones can be mapped directly by simple hybridizations.     

Insertion-Duplication Mutagenesis in Streptococcus pneumoniae: Targeting Fragment Length Is a Critical Parameter in Use as a Random Insertion Tool

To examine whether insertion-duplication mutagenesis with chimeric DNA as a transformation donor could be valuable as a gene knockout tool for genomic analysis in Streptococcus pneumoniae, we studied the transformation efficiency and targeting specificity of the process by using a nonreplicative vector with homologous targeting inserts of various sizes. Insertional recombination was very specific in targeting homologous sites. While the recombination rate did not depend on which site or region was targeted, it did depend strongly on the size of the targeting insert in the donor plasmid, in proportion to the fifth power of its length for inserts of 100 to 500 bp. The dependence of insertion-duplication events on the length of the targeting homology was quite different from that for linear allele replacement and places certain limits on the design of mutagenesis experiments. The number of independent pneumococcal targeting fragments of uniform size required to knock out any desired fraction of the genes in a model genome with a defined probability was calculated from these data by using a combinatorial theory with simplifying assumptions. The results show that efficient and thorough mutagenesis of a large part of the pneumococcal genome should be practical when using insertion-duplication mutagenesis.     

Gene replacement with linear DNA in electroporated wild-type Escherichia coli.

Gene replacement using linear double-stranded DNA fragments in wild-type Escherichia coli transformation is generally inefficient due to exonucleolytic degradation of incoming DNA. Recombination-proficient strains, in which the exonucleolytic activity of RecBCD is inactivated, have been used as transformation recipients to overcome this difficulty. Here we report that gene replacements using linear double-stranded donor DNA can be achieved in wild-type E.coli if electrocompetent cells are used. Using a plasmid target, we obtained 10(2)-10(3) gene replacement events/microgram linear DNA. Using an independent chromosomal target, approximately 60 gene replacement events/microgram linear DNA were obtained. The presence of Chi sites on the linear DNA, which are known to block DNA degradation and stimulate recombination in E.coli, had no effect on gene replacement efficiency in either case. RecBCD-mediated exonucleolytic activity was found to be diminished in electroporated cells. Electrotransformation thus provides a simple way to perform gene replacements in many E.coli strains.     

Homology dependence of targeted recombination at the Chinese hamster APRT locus.

Using simple linear fragments of the Chinese hamster adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) gene as targeting vectors, we have investigated the homology dependence of targeted recombination at the endogenous APRT locus in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. We have examined the effects of varying either the overall length of targeting sequence homology or the length of 5' or 3' flanking homology on both the frequency of targeted homologous recombination and the types of recombination events that are obtained. We find an exponential (logarithmic) relationship between length of APRT targeting homology and the frequency of targeted recombination at the CHO APRT locus, with the frequency of targeted recombination dependent upon both the overall length of targeting homology and the length of homology flanking each side of the target gene deletion. Although most of the APRT+ recombinants analyzed reflect simple targeted replacement or conversion of the target gene deletion, a significant fraction appear to have arisen by target gene-templated extension and correction of the targeting fragment sequences. APRT fragments with limited targeting homology flanking one side of the target gene deletion yield proportionately fewer target gene conversion events and proportionately more templated extension and vector correction events than do fragments with more substantial flanking homology.     

Effect of endonuclease G depletion on plasmid DNA uptake and levels of homologous recombination in hela cells

Endonuclease G (EndoG) is a mitochondrial apoptosis regulator that also has roles outside of programmed cell death. It has been implicated as a defence DNase involved in the degradation of exogenous DNA after transfection of mammalian cells and in homologous recombination of viral and endogenous DNA. In this study, we looked at the effect of EndoG depletion on plasmid DNA uptake and the levels of homologous recombination in HeLa cells. We show that the proposed defence role of EndoG against uptake of non-viral DNA vectors does not extend to the cervical carcinoma HeLa cells, as targeting of EndoG expression by RNA interference failed to increase intracellular plasmid DNA levels. However, reducing EndoG levels in HeLa cells resulted in a statistically significant reduction of homologous recombination between two plasmid DNA substrates. These findings suggest that non-viral DNA vectors are also substrates for EndoG in its role in homologous recombination.