Reproduction of rock pigeon exposed to extreme ambient temperatures

1. The breeding biology of rock pigeon (Columba livia) exposed to ambient temperatures (Ta) between 50 and 60 degrees C was investigated. 2. Four families accomplished three complete life cycles after long term daily exposure to extreme Ta, with about 100% success. 3. The steady state temperatures in the nest were 60, 58, 53 and 44.6 degrees C in the air, substrate surface, underwing, and in the egg's microenvironment, respectively. 4. At thermal conditions between 30 and 60 degrees C, egg temperature (Tegg) was regulated between 36.8 +/- 0.8 (S.D.) and 41.7 +/- 0.4 (S.D.). Tegg increases by 0.163 degrees C/1 degree C rise in Ta. 5. Mean Tb of the nonincubating parent exposed to 30-60 degrees C is 41.6 +/- 0.6 degrees C (S.D.). Under the same conditions the incubating parent regulated a significantly (P less than 0.01) lower Tb (38.8 degrees C) at 45 degrees C Ta and about 1 degree C lower Tb at 30 and 60 degrees C Ta, respectively. 6. By comparing the differences between fast (5 min) cooling of hot egg (44.8 degrees C) to slow heating (60-90 min), we could demonstrate the high sensitivity of the incubating parent to the danger of embryo overheating. 7. The significance of the adaptive behavioral and physiological mechanisms in breeding under extreme thermal conditions are discussed.     

The dependence of the rate of heart contractions in the long-tailed Yakutsk suslik Citellus undulatus on environmental temperature]

Decrease of ambient temperature (Ta) leads to the increase of the heart rate (HR) in active ground squirrels C. undulatus by 5.3/min/1 degree C in summer and by 3.8/min/1 degree C in winter. In a hibernation state, the dependence of the HR on Ta was in a good agreement with equation HT = 2.53.exp.(0.1.Ta). On entering into hibernation and on arousal, the HR change outruns the corresponding body temperature (Tb) change by 1.5-2 hours. A maximum HR level (up to 400/min and more) was registered on arousal when Tb reached 17-20 degrees C. A minimal HR level (4-5/min) was observed during hibernation at Ta 2-5 degrees C. The maximum Ta, at witch C. undulatus was hibernating, reached 23-24 degrees C, the HR being 23-25/min.     

Torpor and hibernation in a basal placental mammal, the Lesser Hedgehog Tenrec Echinops telfairi

The patterns of heterothermy were measured in Lesser Hedgehog Tenrecs, Echinops telfairi, under semi-natural conditions in an outdoor enclosure during the austral mid-winter in southwestern Madagascar. The animals were implanted with miniaturized body temperature (Tb) loggers (iButtons) that measured body temperature every 42 min for 2 months (May and June). The tenrecs entered daily torpor on all 60 consecutive days of measurement, that is, on 100% of animal days, with body temperature closely tracking ambient temperature (Ta) during the ambient heating phase. The mean minimum daily Tb of the tenrecs was 18.44 +/- 0.50 degrees C (n = 174, N = 3), and never exceeded 25 degrees C whereas, apart from a few hibernation bouts in one animal, the mean maximum daily Tb was 30.73 +/- 0.15 degrees C (n = 167, N = 3). Thus during winter, tenrecs display the lowest normothermic Tb of all placental mammals. E. telfairi showed afternoon and early evening arousals, but entered torpor before midnight and remained in torpor for 12-18 h each day. One animal hibernated on two occasions for periods of 2-4 days. We consider E. telfairi to be a protoendotherm, and discuss the relevance and potential of these data for testing models on the evolution of endothermy.     

Thermoregulatory patterns of two sympatric rodents: Otomys unisulcatus and Parotomys brantsii

1. The adaptations to an arid environment in two closely related rodent species were investigated. 2. The rate of oxygen consumption (VO2), body temperature (Tb), evaporative water loss and minimal conductance in Otomys unisulcatus and Parotomys brantsii were determined under controlled conditions at ambient temperatures (Ta), ranging from 11-31 C. 3. Physiological features atypical of desert-adapted rodents include a basal metabolic rate higher than predicted by body mass, the low "lower critical temperature" and symptoms of heat stress at 31 degrees C. 4. The low Tb and wide thermoneutral zone recorded for both species are characteristic of desert rodent species. 5. These species' physiological abilities reflect their mesic phylogeny and we suggest that behaviour must play an important role in their survival in semi-arid areas.     

Energy metabolism and body temperature of barn owls fasting in the cold

Energetic adaptation to fasting in the cold has been investigated in a nocturnal raptor, the barn owl (Tyto alba), during winter. Metabolic rate and body temperature (Tb) were monitored in captive birds, (1) after acute exposure to different ambient temperatures (Ta), and (2) during a prolonged fast in the cold (4 degrees C), to take into account the three characteristic phases of body fuel utilization that occur during a long-term but reversible fast. In postabsorptive birds, metabolic rate in the thermoneutral zone was 4. 1+/-0.1 W kg-1 and increased linearly below a lower critical temperature of 23 degrees C. Metabolic rate was 70% above basal at +4 degrees C Ta. Wet thermal conductance was 0.22 W kg-1 degrees C-1. During fasting in the cold, the mass-specific resting metabolic rate decreased by 16% during the first day (phase I) and remained constant thereafter. The amplitude of the daily rhythm in Tb was only moderately increased during phase II, with a slight lowering (0. 6 degrees C) in minimal diurnal Tb, but rose markedly in phase III with a larger drop (1.4 degrees C) in minimal diurnal Tb. Refeeding the birds ended phase III and reversed the observed changes. These results indicate that diurnal hypothermia may be used in long-term fasting barn owls and could be triggered by a threshold of body lipid depletion, according to the shift from lipid to protein fuel metabolism occurring at the phase II/phase III transition. The high cost of regulatory thermogenesis and the limited use of hypothermia during fasting may contribute to the high mortality of barn owls during winter.     

Comparison of surface temperature in 13-lined ground squirrel (Spermophilus tridecimlineatus) and yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris) during arousal from hibernation

Surface temperatures (Ts) of eight 13-lined ground squirrels and seven yellow-bellied marmots were measured during arousal from hibernation using infrared thermography (IRT) and recorded on videotape. Animals aroused normally in 5 degrees C cold rooms. Body temperatures were recorded during arousal using both cheek pouch and interscapular temperature probes. Warming rate in arousal was exponential. Mean mass specific warming rates show the squirrels warm faster (69.76 degrees C/h/kg) than the marmots (4.49 degrees C/h/kg). Surface temperatures (Ts) for 11 regions were measured every few minutes during arousal. The smaller ground squirrel shows the ability to perfuse distal regions without compromising rise in deep body temperature (Tb). All squirrel Ts's remained low as Tb rose to 18 degrees C, at which point, eyes opened, squirrels became more active and all Ts's rose parallel to Tb. Marmot Ts remained low as Tb rose initially. Each marmot showed a plateau phase where Tb remained constant (mean Tb 20.3+/-1.0 degrees C, duration 9.4+/-4.1 min) during which time all Ts's rose, and then remained relatively constant as Tb again began to rise. An anterior to posterior Ts gradient was evident in the ground squirrel, both body and feet. This gradient was only evident in the feet of the marmots.     

Acid-base regulation during thermal panting in the fowl (Gallus domesticus): comparison between breeds

1. The effects of high ambient temperatures on blood acid base status were studied in four breeds of fowl. 2. All breeds efficiently regulated body temperature below ambient temperature at 45 degrees C (Tb = 38.521 + 0.110Ta, at 25-45 degrees C). 3. A slight hypocapnia was partly compensated for by a decreased HCO3 concentration. This resulted in only a slight respiratory alkalosis at extreme temperatures (+0.021 and +0.042 pH units at 42 and 45 degrees C, respectively). 4. Changes in Paco2 were negatively correlated with tidal volume: Paco2 (torr) = 33.10390 - 1.17493 VT(ml); r = -0.925, P much less than 0.001. 5. The present findings are consistent with an hypothesis that modulation of tidal volume during thermal panting might play a major role in acid-base regulation.     

Temperature regulation in adult quail (Colinus virginianus) during acute thermal stress

1. Evaporative heat loss, O2 consumption, CO2 production, and internal body temperature were measured in unanesthetized, unrestrained bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) at specific ambient temperatures (Ta). 2. No significant change in body temperature occurred at any Ta tested, but metabolic heat production (H) increased from 42.17 W/m2 at Ta 35 degrees C to 102.89 W/m2 at Ta 10 degrees C. 3. Evaporative heat loss (E) increased approximately two-fold from Ta 10-35 degrees C, with E/H increasing exponentially over the same temperature range. 4. No significant change in thermal insulation occurred from Ta 10-30 degrees C. 5. Combined convective and radiative heat transfer for the bobwhite was 2.96 W/m2 X C from Ta 10-35 degrees C.     

Air movement and heat loss from sheep. III. Components of insulation in a controlled environment

The rate of sensible heat loss from a Clun Forest ewe was studied at several fleece depths in a temperature-controlled chamber. A simple resistance analogue was used to describe the heat flow from different body regions. Heat loss from the trunk depends largely on the mean fleece depth l. The fleece resistance was about 1.5 s cm-1 per centimetre depth. Heat transfer through the fleece was accounted for by molecular conduction, thermal radiation and free convection. The fleece conductivity -kb attributed to free convection depends on the mean temperature difference (-Tst---Tct) across the fleece according to the relation -kb = 8.0 (-Tst---Tct)0.53. Estimates of the sensible heat flux from the trunk at environmental temperatures, Ta, between 0 and 30 degrees C range from about 8 W (l = 7.0 cm, Ta = 30 degrees C) to about 160 W (l = 0.1 cm, Ta = 0 degrees C). In contrast, the sensible heat loss from the legs depends mainly on the local tissue resistance. For environmental temperatures between 0 and 30 degrees C, the calculated tissue resistance for this region of the body varied from about 8 to 1 s cm-1. The corresponding heat loss from the legs was between 10 and 20 W, compared with between 3 and 7 W from the head. The fastest heat loss from the legs occurred at an environmental temperature of about 12 degrees C. Although the proportion of the heat loss from the extremities depends on environmental temperature, the total heat loss (sensible or latent) was closely related to the mean skin temperature of the trunk.     

Thermoregulation in the Angolan free-tailed bat Mops condylurus: A small mammal that uses hot roosts.

The Angolan free-tailed bat (Mops condylurus) uses roosts that often exceed 40 degrees C, an ambient temperature (Ta) that is lethal to many microchiropterans. We measured the physiological responses of this species at Ta's from 15 degrees to 45 degrees C. Torpor was commonly employed during the day at the lower Ta, but the bats generally remained euthermic at night, with a mean body temperature (Tb) of 35.2 degrees C. Metabolic rate reflected the pattern of Tb, increasing with falling Ta at night but decreasing during the day. Metabolic rate and evaporative losses were lower in torpid than in euthermic bats. Body temperature increased at each Ta >35 degrees C and was 43 degrees C at Ta of 45 degrees C. At Ta of 40 degrees C bats increased dry thermal conductance and evaporative heat loss compared to lower Ta. At 45 degrees C dry thermal conductance was lower than at 40 degrees C and evaporative heat loss was 132% of metabolic heat production. At high Ta there was only a slight increase in metabolic rate despite the employment of evaporative cooling mechanisms and an increase in Tb. Collectively our results suggest that M. condylurus is well suited to tolerate high Ta, and this may enable it to exploit thermally challenging roost sites and to colonise habitats and exploit food sources where less stressful roosts are limiting.     

Effects of hypoxia and cold acclimation on thermoregulation in the rat.

The effects of hypoxia (inspired O2 fraction = 0.12) on thermoregulation and on the different sources of thermogenesis were studied in rats before and after periods of 1-4 wk of cold acclimation. Measurements of metabolic rate (VO2) and body temperature (Tb) were made at 5-min intervals, and shivering activity was recorded continuously in groups of rats subjected to three protocols. In protocol 1, rats were exposed to normoxia to an ambient temperature (Ta) of 5 degrees C for 2 h. In protocol 2, at Ta of 5 degrees C, rats were exposed for 30 min to normoxia, then for 45 min to hypoxia, and finally for 30 min to normoxia. In protocol 3, in the non-cold-acclimated (NCA) rats, Ta was decreased from 30 to 5 degrees C in steps of 5 degrees C and of 30-min duration while in cold-acclimated (CA) rats at 5 degrees C for 4-wk, Ta was increased from 5 to 30 degrees C in steps of 5 degrees C and of 30-min duration. Recordings were made in normoxia and in hypoxia on different days in the same animals. The results showed that 1) in NCA rats, cold exposure in normoxia induced increases in VO2 and shivering that were proportional to the decrease in Ta; 2) in CA rats in normoxia, for a given Ta, VO2 and Tb were higher than in NCA rats, whereas shivering was generally lower; and 3) in both NCA and CA rats, hypoxia induced a transient decrease in shivering and a sustained decrease in nonshivering thermogenesis associated with a marked decrease in Tb that was about the same in NCA and CA rats. We speculate that hypoxia acts on Tb control to produce a general inhibition of thermogenesis. Nonshivering thermogenesis is markedly sensitive to hypoxia, especially demonstrable in CA rats; a recovery or even an increase in shivering can compensate for the decrease in nonshivering thermogenesis.     

Thermoregulatory and metabolic changes during fever in young and old rats

We injected old and young rats with lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 50 microg/kg ip) at two ambient temperatures (Ta; 21 and 31 degrees C). Young rats mounted equivalent fevers at both Tas [peak body temperatures (Tb) of 38.3 and 38.7 degrees C, respectively]. The Tb of old rats was not different from baseline (37.3 degrees C) after LPS at Ta 21 degrees C, whereas, at 31 degrees C, their Tb rose to a mean peak of 38.4 degrees C. We also measured the associated thermoregulatory responses by use of calorimetry. At 21 degrees C, young rats developed a fever by increasing both O2 consumption and heat conservation. Old rats did not become febrile, and O2 consumption fell by 15%. Heat loss was the same in old and young rats. At 31 degrees C, young and old rats developed similar fevers with similar increases in heat production and conservation. Our results suggest that the lack of LPS fever in old rats at 21 degrees C is due mainly to the lowered metabolic rate.     

Unappreciated tolerance to high ambient temperatures in a widely distributed desert rodent, Dipodomys merriami

A long-held assertion has been that nocturnality is an escape mechanism for many nocturnal desert rodents because of limited tolerances to heat. To test this claim, we used a treadmill to examine the tolerances to high ambient temperatures (T(a)'s) of one subspecies of desert rodent, Merriam's kangaroo rat, Dipodomys merriami merriami, from contrasting environments. We simultaneously measured body temperature (T(b)), evaporative water loss, and metabolic rates at an ecologically relevant speed (0.6 km h(-1)) at different ambient temperatures (Ta=25 degrees -42.5 degrees C). We hypothesized that kangaroo rats from a more xeric site would have greater abilities to remain active and maintain stable T(b) than those from a more mesic site, but mesic- and xeric-site animals had comparable tolerances and were active until Tb=42 degrees C. At Ta=42.5 degrees C, however, T(b) of mesic-site animals increased more quickly than in xeric-site animals. Although most animals could not run more than 18 min at Ta=42.5 degrees C, most could run at Ta=40 degrees C for at least 30 min. Benefits of nocturnality for this species may reside more in purposes of water conservation and avoidance of predation and less on the direct regulation of T(b), as T(b) is more labile than commonly thought.     

The influence of ambient temperature on metabolism and body temperature of newborn and growing reindeer calves (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.)

Thermoregulatory capacities of 51 reindeer calves (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) aged 1-35 days were studied at -26.5 to +35.0 degrees C ambient temperatures at Kaamanen reindeer research station, Finland (69 degrees 10' N) during calving periods in May 1981 and May-July 1982. The newborn calves aged 1-4 days maintained a high body temperature (Tre) (mean +40.2 degrees C) even at the lowest experimental temperature of -22.5 degrees C by increasing their metabolic rate five-fold above the level at +11.0 degrees C. Heat production of the new-born calves was largely based on the metabolism of brown adipose tissue, stimulated by cold-induced discharge of the sympathetic nervous transmitter, noradrenaline (NA). Sensitivity of the calves to exogenous NA disappeared during the first 3-4 weeks of life. Thermal conductance of the calves was low at low ambient temperatures, but rose strongly as Ta increased above +10 degrees C. The extensive peripheral cooling, especially in the feet, was demonstrated in the calves aged 1-10 days. The lowest foot temperature (+10.5 degrees C) was measured in a 4-day-old calf at -14.5 degrees C. Slight shivering thermogenesis was recorded in the calves aged 1-4 days and occasionally in the older calves at low values of Ta. Shivering appears to be a reserve mechanism against severe cold. At about +20 degrees C and above the calves increased their Tre (approximately 1 degree C), oxygen consumption and heart rate. In the newborn calves oxygen consumption rose four- to five-fold and in 1-month-old calves about two-fold. Fast growing calves (maximum 400 g/day) appear to be more stressed by heat than by cold exposure.     

Behavioral thermoregulation by hypoxic rats.

To address whether a shift in hypothalamic thermal setpoint might be a significant factor in induction of hypoxic hypothermia, behavioral thermoregulation was examined in 7 female Sprague-Dawley rats implanted with radiotelethermometers for deep body temperature (Tb) measurement in a thermocline during normoxia (PO2 = 125 torr) and hypoxia (PO2 = 60 torr). Normoxic rats (TNox) selected a mean ambient temperature of 19.7 +/- 1.4 (SE) degrees C and maintained Tb at 37.0 +/- 0.2 degrees C. Hypoxic rats selected a significantly higher ambient temperature (THox = 28.6 +/- 2.2 degrees C) but maintained Tb significantly lower at 35.5 +/- 0.3 degrees C. Without a thermal gradient (ambient temperature = 25 degrees C), Tb during hypoxia was 35.4 +/- 0.4 degrees C. The maintenance of a lower body temperature during hypoxia through behavioral thermoregulation despite having warmer temperatures available supports the hypothesis that the thermoregulatory setpoint of hypoxic rats is shifted to promote thermoregulation at a lower Tb, effectively reducing oxygen demand when oxygen supply is limited.     

Heterothermic responses in the speckled mousebird (Colius striatus)

We investigated normothermic thermoregulation and heterothermic responses to restricted food in the speckled mousebird Colius striatus, in the context of the widely accepted distinction between normothermia, rest-phase hypothermia, and torpor. Normothermic thermoregulation differed from typical endothermic patterns in that rest-phase body temperature (Tb) was not maintained with respect to a constant setpoint. Instead, Tb decreased during the course of the rest-phase, with the highest cooling rates observed at moderate ambient temperatures (Ta). Restricted food was associated with significant reductions in rest-phase Tb and metabolic rate. The lowest Tb recorded in a bird which was able to arouse spontaneously, was 18.2 degrees C. However, we were unable to clearly discern between normothermic, hypothermic and torpor Tb ranges. Furthermore, heterothermic responses did not accord with the patterns typically observed in birds and mammals. Metabolic suppression normally associated with entry into torpor and the defence of a torpor Tb setpoint was largely absent. The mousebirds significantly reduced their energy expenditure when heterothermic at moderate TaS only. We suggest that the observed patterns of thermoregulation in C. striatus, as well those previously reported in Colius colius, are associated with plesiomorphic clustering behaviour in the Coliiformes, and the tandem evolution of behavioural and metabolic thermoregulation.     

Thermal effects of dorsal head immersion in cold water on nonshivering humans.

Personal floatation devices maintain either a semirecumbent flotation posture with the head and upper chest out of the water or a horizontal flotation posture with the dorsal head and whole body immersed. The contribution of dorsal head and upper chest immersion to core cooling in cold water was isolated when the confounding effect of shivering heat production was inhibited with meperidine (Demerol, 2.5 mg/kg). Six male volunteers were immersed four times for up to 60 min, or until esophageal temperature = 34 degrees C. An insulated hoodless dry suit or two different personal floatation devices were used to create four conditions: 1) body insulated, head out; 2) body insulated, dorsal head immersed; 3) body exposed, head (and upper chest) out; and 4) body exposed, dorsal head (and upper chest) immersed. When the body was insulated, dorsal head immersion did not affect core cooling rate (1.1 degrees C/h) compared with head-out conditions (0.7 degrees C/h). When the body was exposed, however, the rate of core cooling increased by 40% from 3.6 degrees C/h with the head out to 5.0 degrees C/h with the dorsal head and upper chest immersed (P < 0.01). Heat loss from the dorsal head and upper chest was approximately proportional to the extra surface area that was immersed (approximately 10%). The exaggerated core cooling during dorsal head immersion (40% increase) may result from the extra heat loss affecting a smaller thermal core due to intense thermal stimulation of the body and head and resultant peripheral vasoconstriction. Dorsal head and upper chest immersion in cold water increases the rate of core cooling and decreases potential survival time.     

Heat loss from the human head during exercise

Evaporative and convective heat loss from head skin and expired air were measured in four male subjects at rest and during incremental exercise at 5, 15, and 25 degrees C ambient temperature (Ta) to verify whether the head can function as a heat sink for selective brain cooling. The heat losses were measured with an open-circuit method. At rest the heat loss from head skin and expired air decreased with increasing Ta from 69 +/- 5 and 37 +/- 18 (SE) W (5 degrees C) to 44 +/- 25 and 26 +/- 7 W (25 degrees C). At a work load of 150 W the heat loss tended to increase with increasing Ta: 119 +/- 21 (head skin) and 82 +/- 5 W (respiratory tract) at 5 degrees C Ta to 132 +/- 27 and 103 +/- 12 W at 25 degrees C Ta. Heat loss was always higher from the head surface than from the respiratory tract. The heat losses, separately and together (total), were highly correlated to the increasing esophageal temperature at 15 and 25 degrees C Ta. At 5 degrees C Ta on correlation occurred. The results showed that the heat loss from the head was larger than the heat brought to the brain by the arterial blood during hyperthermia, estimated to be 45 W per 1 degree C increase above normal temperature, plus the heat produced by the brain, estimated to be up to 20 W. The total heat to be lost is therefore approximately 65 W during a mild hyperthermia (+1 degrees C) if brain temperature is to remain constant.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Peripheral ghrelin deepens torpor bouts in mice through the arcuate nucleus neuropeptide Y signaling pathway

Many small mammals have the ability to enter torpor, characterized by a controlled drop in body temperature (Tb). We hypothesized that ghrelin would modulate torpor bouts, because torpor is induced by fasting in mice coincident with elevated circulating ghrelin. Female National Institutes of Health (NIH) Swiss mice were implanted with a Tb telemeter and housed at an ambient temperature (Ta) of 18 degrees C. On fasting, all mice entered a bout of torpor (minimum Tb: 23.8+/-2.0 degrees C). Peripheral ghrelin administration (100 microg) during fasting significantly deepened the bout of torpor (Tb minimum: 19.4+/-0.5 degrees C). When the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus, a ghrelin receptor-rich region of the brain, was chemically ablated with monosodium glutamate (MSG), fasted mice failed to enter torpor (minimum Tb=31.6+/-0.6 degrees C). Furthermore, ghrelin administration had no effect on the Tb minimum of ARC-ablated mice (31.8+/-0.8 degrees C). Two major pathways that regulate food intake reside in the ARC, the anorexigenic alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) pathway and the orexigenic neuropeptide Y (NPY) signaling pathway. Both Ay mice, which have the alpha-MSH pathway blocked, and Npy-/-mice exhibited shallow, aborted torpor bouts in response to fasting (Tb minimum: 29.1+/-0.6 degrees C and 29.9+/-1.2 degrees C, respectively). Ghrelin deepened torpor in Ay mice (Tb minimum: 22.8+/-1.3 degrees C), but had no effect in Npy-/-mice (Tb minimum: 29.5+/-0.8 degrees C). Collectively, these data suggest that ghrelin's actions on torpor are mediated via NPY neurons within the ARC.     

Cold-induced changes in breathing pattern as a strategy to reduce respiratory heat loss

Thermoregulatory benefits of cold-induced changes in breathing pattern and mechanism(s) by which cold induces hypoventilation were investigated using male Holstein calves (1-3 mo old). Effects of ambient temperatures (Ta) between 4 and 18 degrees C on ventilatory parameters and respiratory heat loss (RHL) were determined in four calves. As Ta decreased, respiratory frequency decreased 29%, tidal volume increased 35%, total ventilation and RHL did not change, and the percentage of metabolic rate attributed to RHL decreased 26%. Total ventilation was stimulated by increasing inspired CO2 in six calves (Ta 4-6 degrees C), and a positive relationship existed between respiratory frequency and expired air temperature. Therefore, cold-exposed calves conserve respiratory heat by decreasing expired air temperature and dead space ventilation. Compared with thermoneutral exposure (16-18 degrees C), hypoventilation was induced by airway cold exposure (4-6 degrees C) alone and by exposing the body but not the airways to cold. Blocking nasal thermoreceptors with topical lidocaine during airway cold exposure prevented the ventilatory response but did not lower hypothalamic temperature. Hypothalamic cooling (Ta 16-18 degrees C) did not produce a ventilatory response. Thus, airway temperature but not hypothalamic temperature appears to control ventilation in cold-exposed calves.