Phylogeny,classification, and biogeography of Afrotrichloris,Apochiton, Coelachyrum,Dinebra, Eleusine,Leptochloa, Schoenefeldia,and a new genus,Schoenefeldiella (Poaceae: Chloridoideae: Cynodonteae: Eleusininae)

To investigate the evolutionary relationships among species of Afrotrichloris, Apochiton, Coelachyrum, Dinebra, Eleusine, Leptochloa, and Schoenefeldia of subtribe Eleusininae, a phylogeny based on DNA sequences from nine gene regions (ITS, rps16-trnK, rps3, rps16, rpoC2, rpl32-trnL, ndhF, ndhA, ccsA) is presented. Previous molecular phylogenies indicated that Coelachyrum was polyphyletic and Schoenefeldia was paraphyletic, with Afrotrichloris embedded within it. Apochiton burttii was embedded in the Coelachyrum clade paired with C. longiglume, Coelachyrumpoiflorum was placed outside of Coelachyrum and sister to Eleusine, and Schoenefeldia is paraphyletic, with its two species forming a grade sister to Afrotrichoris. Our molecular phylogeny supports recognition of a new genus, Schoenefeldiella, and a new combination, Schoenfeldiella transiens. In addition, we provide generic emendations for Coelachyrum, which now includes five species including a new combination proposed here, Coelachyrum burttii, and Eleusine, which now includes 11 species.     

Ethnobotany of Ladakh,India: Beverages,narcotics, foods

Ladakh is India’s link with the exotic past. Popularly known as little Tibet or Western Tibet, Ladakh is one of the richest centres of Buddhist art and culture. It has its own deep-rooted traditions, which have been protected and practised for centuries. The present communication puts on record some of the traditional ladakhi preparations that have been used for hundreds of years. Those described are (1) beverages — chhang and gur gur cha; (2) narcotics — berzeatsink, staspakchek, techepakchiatzen, zimpating, and lingeatzish; and (3) foods — khambir, kholaq, mok mok, and thukpa.     

Structures of the potassium-saturated, 2:1, and intermediate, 1:1, forms of a quadruplex DNA

Potassium can stabilize the formation of chair- or edge-type quadruplex DNA structures and appears to be the only naturally occurring cation that can do so. As quadruplex DNAs may be important in the structure of telomere, centromere, triplet repeat and other DNAs, information about the details of the potassium–quadruplex DNA interactions are of interest. The structures of the 1:1 and the fully saturated, 2:1, potassium–DNA complexes of d(GGTTGGTGTGGTTGG) have been determined using the combination of experimental NMR results and restrained molecular dynamics simulations. The refined structures have been used to model the interactions at the potassium binding sites. Comparison of the 1:1 and 2:1 potassium:DNA structures indicates how potassium binding can determine the folding pattern of the DNA. In each binding site potassium interacts with the carbonyl oxygens of both the loop thymine residues and the guanine residues of the adjacent quartet.     

Functions of gelsolin: motility, signaling, apoptosis, cancer

Several new members of the gelsolin family have been discovered in the past year. Determination of the structure of gelsolin and identification of lysophosphatidic acid as a negative regulator provide novel functional insights. Gelsolin is an obligate downstream effector of Rac for motility in dermal fibroblasts, regulates phosphoinositide signaling pathways and ion channel function in vivo, and acts as both a regulator and effector of apoptosis.     

Molecular phylogeny of basal gobioid fishes: Rhyacichthyidae, Odontobutidae, Xenisthmidae, Eleotridae (Teleostei: Perciformes: Gobioidei)

Morphological character analyses indicate that Rhyacichthyidae, Odontobutidae, Eleotridae, and Xenisthmidae are the basal families within the perciform suborder Gobioidei. This study uses DNA sequence data to infer the relationships of genera within these families, as well as determine the placement of more derived gobioids (family Gobiidae) and the identity of the outgroup to Gobioidei. Complete sequences of the mitochondrial ND1, ND2, COI, and cyt b genes (4397 base pairs) are analyzed for representatives of 27 gobioid genera and a variety of perciform and scorpaeniform outgroup candidates; the phylogeny is rooted with a beryciform as a distal outgroup. The single most parsimonious tree that results indicates that, of the outgroups sampled, the perciform family Apogonidae is most closely related to Gobioidei. Gobioidei is monophyletic, and Rhyacichthys aspro is the most basal taxon. The remainder of Gobioidei is resolved into clades corresponding to the families Odontobutidae (plus Milyeringa) and Eleotridae+Xenisthmidae+Gobiidae. Within Eleotridae, the subfamily Butinae (minus Milyeringa) is paraphyletic with respect to Gobiidae, and Eleotrinae is paraphyletic with respect to Xenisthmidae. Other than these groupings, the primary disagreement with the current morphology-based classification is that the molecular data indicate that the troglodytic Milyeringa should be placed in Odontobutidae, not Butinae, although support for this placement is weak. The most basal lineage of Gobioidei is known from the freshwaters of the Indo-Pacific, with marine-dwelling lineages arising several times independently in the group. The phylogeny also indicates that different gobioid lineages are distributed in Asia, Africa, Madagascar and the Neotropics. Five sister pairs of basal gobioid species inhabit Atlantic and Pacific drainages of Panama, with widely varying divergences.     

Review: Helicobacter: Inflammation,immunology, and vaccines

Chronic inflammation induced by Helicobacter pylori infection is a critical factor in the development of peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer. Central to this inflammation is the initiation of pro‐inflammatory signaling cascades within epithelial cells, in particular those mediated by two sensors of bacterial cell wall components, nucleotide‐binding oligomerization domain‐containing protein 1 (NOD1) and alpha‐protein kinase 1 (ALPK1). H pylori is, however, also highly adept at mitigating inflammation in the host, thereby restricting tissue damage and favoring bacterial persistence. H pylori modulates host immune responses by altering cytokine signaling in epithelial and myeloid cells, which results in increased proliferation of regulatory T cells and downregulation of effector T‐cell responses. H pylori vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) has been shown to play an important role in the dampening of immune responses and induction of immune tolerance capable of protecting against asthma. It is also possible to generate protective immune responses by immunization with various H pylori antigens or their epitopes, in combination with an adjuvant, though this for now has only been shown in mouse models. Novel non‐toxic adjuvants, consisting of modified bacterial enterotoxins or nanoparticles, have recently been developed that may not only enhance vaccine efficacy, but also help translate candidate vaccines to the clinic. This review will summarize the main discoveries in the past year regarding host immune responses to H pylori infection, as well as the design of new vaccine approaches against this infection.     

Systematic revision of Aluntiini Emeljanov, 1979 (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha: Dictyopharidae: Dictyopharinae): reclassification,phylogenetic analysis,and biogeography

The dictyopharid planthopper tribe Aluntiini s.l. is revised and reclassified into two tribes: Aluntiini s.s. and Arjunini Song & Szwedo trib. nov. The tribe Aluntiini s.s. includes five genera: Aluntia Stål, 1866; D endrophora Melichar, 1903 stat. rev. ; Dictyomorpha Melichar, 1912; Indodictyophara Liang & Song, 2012; and Madagascaritia Song & Liang gen. nov. The new tribe Arjunini comprises two genera – Arjuna Muir, 1934 and Pippax Emeljanov, 2008 – both moved from Aluntiini s.l. Four new species – A luntia longicephalica Song & Szwedo sp. nov. , Madagascaritia angusta Song & Liang sp. nov. , Arjuna maai Song & Wang sp. nov. , and Arjuna muiri Song & Wang sp. nov. – are described. A morphologically based phylogenetic analysis is undertaken for Aluntiini, Arjunini, and the representatives of Dictyopharini, Hastini, Orthopagini, and the fossil Worskaitini within Dictyopharinae, all distributed in the Old World. A matrix of 129 characters of the habitus, coloration, head, thorax, and male and female genitalia of the adults was used for the cladistic analysis. The phylogenetic results show that Aluntiini s.l. as placed in Dictyopharidae is well supported, but it is distinctly paraphyletic and should be separated into two unambiguous tribes. A palaeotropical distribution pattern displayed by Aluntiini is suggested. The origin and diversification of Aluntiini are discussed preliminarily. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London     

Bacteriocins: criteria,classification, characteristics,methods of detection

The review on bacteriocins of Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria. Criteria making it possible to regard antagonistic substances as bateriocins or bacteriocin-like substances and on their classification are presented. Examples of bacteriocins naming depending on the taxonomic position of the producer culture are given. Information on the physico-chemical and biological properties of bacteriocins and their purification is presented as well as on detection tools of bacteriocins in microorganisms and evaluation of the producer activity of the bacteriological culture.     

Sarcocystis neurona (Protozoa: Apicomplexa): description of oocysts, sporocysts, sporozoites, excystation, and early development

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis is a major cause of neurological disease in horses from the Americas. Horses are considered accidental intermediate hosts. The structure of sporocysts of the causative agent, Sarcocystis neurona, has never been described. Sporocysts of S. neurona were obtained from the intestines of a laboratory-raised opossum fed skeletal muscles from a raccoon that had been fed sporocysts. Sporocysts were 11.3 by 8.2 microm and contained 4 sporozoites. The appearance of the sporocyst residuum was variable. The residuum of some sporocysts was composed of many dispersed granules, whereas some had granules mixed with larger globules. Excystation was by collapse of the sporocyst along plates. The sporocysts wall was composed of 3 layers: a thin electron-dense outer layer, a thin electron-lucent middle layer, and a thick electron-dense inner layer. The sporocyst wall was thickened at the junctions of the plates. Sporozoites were weakly motile and contained a centrally or posteriorly located nucleus. No retractile or crystalloid body was present, but lipidlike globules about 1 microm in diameter were usually present in the conoidal end of sporozoites. Sporozoites contained 2-4 electron-dense rhoptries and other organelles typical of coccidian zoites. Sporozoites entered host cells in culture and underwent schizogony within 3 days.     

Causes of Polygyny: Ecology, Economy, Kinship, and Warfare

We discuss and test competing explanations for polygyny based on household economics, malecentered kin groups, warfare, and environmental characteristics. Data consist of codes for 142 societies from the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, including new codes for polygyny and environmental characteristics. An explanatory model is tested for the worldwide sample using regression analysis, and then replicated with regional samples. We obtain convergent results with two different measures of polygyny, cultural rules for men's marriages and the percentage of women married polygynously. We conclude that the best predictors of polygyny are fraternal interest groups, warfare for capture of women, absence of constraints on expansion into new lands, and environmental quality and homogeneity.     

Varieties of modules: kinds, levels, origins, and behaviors

This article began as a review of a conference, organized by Gerhard Schlosser, entitled "Modularity in Development and Evolution." The conference was held at, and sponsored by, the Hanse Wissenschaftskolleg in Delmenhorst, Germany in May, 2000. The article subsequently metamorphosed into a literature and concept review as well as an analysis of the differences in current perspectives on modularity. Consequently, I refer to general aspects of the conference but do not review particular presentations. I divide modules into three kinds: structural, developmental, and physiological. Every module fulfills none, one, or multiple functional roles. Two further orthogonal distinctions are important in this context: module-kinds versus module-variants-of-a-kind and reproducer versus nonreproducer modules. I review criteria for individuation of modules and mechanisms for the phylogenetic origin of modularity. I discuss conceptual and methodological differences between developmental and evolutionary biologists, in particular the difference between integration and competition perspectives on individualization and modular behavior. The variety in views regarding modularity presents challenges that require resolution in order to attain a comprehensive, rather than a piecemeal and fragmentary, evolutionary developmental biology. J. Exp. Zool. (Mol. Dev. Evol.) 291:116-129, 2001.     

Focus: A Multifaceted Battle Against Cancer: Basal Cell Carcinoma: Pathogenesis,Epidemiology, Clinical Features,Diagnosis, Histopathology,and Management

Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most common malignancy. Exposure to sunlight is the most important risk factor. Most, if not all, cases of BCC demonstrate overactive Hedgehog signaling. A variety of treatment modalities exist and are selected based on recurrence risk, importance of tissue preservation, patient preference, and extent of disease. The pathogenesis, epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, histopathology, and management of BCC will be discussed in this review.     

Eliciting Play: A Comparative Study: (Octodon, Octodontomys, Pediolagus, Phoca, Chocropsis, Ailuropoda)

The social play behavior of six mammalian species (Rodentia,Pinnipedia, Artiodactyla, Carnivora) is described and compared.Locomotor and Rotational Movements, e.g., jumping, running,and headshaking, occurred in all species and predominated inthe rodent play. These movements are similar in form to anti-predatorand "protective" responses and result in an immediate but temporarycessation of sensory stimulation from conspecifics. Investigation of body odors was the most important stimuluseliciting Locomotor-Rotational Movements in the rodents. Inthe larger mammals, body odor sniffing was enhanced during play,but specialized signals from other sensory modalities elicitedand maintained play interactions. The possible functions ofa heightened exchange of olfactory information during juvenilesocial development are discussed.     

Earth,Air, Fire,and Water: Elements of Art

Abstract

Shoshana Zuboff. In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power. New York: Basic Books, 1988, 468 pp. $11.95 paperback.

George Gilder. Microcosm: The Quantum Revolution in Economics and Technology. New York: Simon &; Schuster, 1989. 426 pp. $19.95 hardcover.

Loren Baritz. The Good Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1988. 361 pp. $19.95 hardcover.

Miles Orville. The Real Thing: Imitation and Authority in American Culture, 1880–1940. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. 382 pp. $14.95 paperback.

Peter Shaw. The War Against the Intellect. Iowa City: The University of Iowa Press, 1989. 181 pp. $10.95 paperback.

Robert Alter. The Pleasures of Reading in an Ideological Age. New York: Simon &; Schuster, 1989. 250 pp. $18.95 hardcover.

Ian Crofton. A Dictionary of Art Quotations. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1989. $19.95 hardcover.     

Tour of Truffles: Aromas,Aphrodisiacs, Adaptogens,and More

Truffles are the fruiting bodies of ascomycete fungi that form underground. Truffles are globally valued, culturally celebrated as aphrodisiacs, and highly sought-after delicacies in the culinary world. For centuries, naturalists have speculated about their mode of formation, and in cultures surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, many species have been prized as a delectable food source. Truffle fruiting bodies form underground and emit a variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Truffle volatiles are believed to have evolved to attract animals that disperse their spores. The main VOCs identified from truffles include sulfur compounds, such as dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS); in addition, 1-octen-3-ol and 2-methyl-1-propanol have been found in most truffle species. Humans use pigs and dogs trained to detect truffle VOCs in order to find these prized subterranean macrofungi. Truffles have pharmacological potential, but until more reliable cultivation methods become available their high price means they are unlikely to see widespread use as medicinals.     

Islands: stability, diversity, conservation

Islands present both a diversity and a stability paradox. They are often highly species-poor but have considerable biological interest in terms of extraordinary endemic genera and taxonomically isolated groups. They appear to be stable, as in some cases these organisms have persisted for many millions of years, and having an oceanic climate, extreme climatic events may be comparatively rare. However, when subject to extrinsic (anthropogenic) disturbance they do not appear to be stable, but often suffer catastrophic ecological change. These apparent paradoxes are resolved when it is realized that all these features are consequences of the same island characteristics: biotic isolation and oceanicity. As a result of these two characteristics, far oceanic islands are quantitatively different from continental systems in the nature of their ecological processes, which appear to give rise to an extreme punctuated equilibrium model of evolutionary change. Endemics may be ancient relict endemics displaying prolonged stasis and persistence, or products of adaptive radiation representing rapid punctuational events. A process-based definition of a relict endemic (palaeoendemic) is one whose founding lineage (i.e. the original continental source taxon) has not left any descendents. A corollary of this definition is that the time of divergence between an endemic and its continental sister-group should predate the colonization of the island by the now endemic lineage. An example is Dicksonia arborescens which has been on St Helena for at least 9 Myrs and no longer occurs in the likely source area of Africa. These relict endemics, frequent on islands, are important as the last remnants of tranches of biodiversity that have vanished elsewhere. Island conservation strategies require an integrated understanding of both sides of the diversity and stability paradox so that both island processes and island organisms can be conserved.