糖基化磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶D的研究进展

羧基端结合有糖基化磷脂酰肌醇（GPI）结构的膜蛋白,称为GPI锚定蛋白;此后不久又鉴定出一种GPI锚定蛋白专一性的磷脂酶D（GPI-PLD）。GPI-PLD能特异性地水解GPI、释放出锚定蛋白并调节锚定蛋白的表达和生物功能等,本文概述了近年来有关GPI-PLD的研究状况,包括它的组织和器官来源,生理功能、病理条件下的活性改变,分子结构以及cDNA克隆等。     

人骨髓基质细胞中糖基化磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶DcDNA的克隆

为探讨人糖基化磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶D(GPI PLD)cDNA的结构及功能 ,应用RT PCR从人骨髓基质细胞中克隆了长约 2 6kb的GPI PLDcDNA ,包含完整阅读框架 ,编码 2 3个氨基酸的信号肽及 817个氨基酸的成熟肽 .该cDNA与人胰腺GPI PLDcDNA几乎百分之百同源 ,与人肝脏GPI PLDcDNA同源性为 95 %,氨基酸同源性为 94 %,3者对应的结构基因只有 1个 ,位于人类第 6号染色体上 ,基因组序列长约 80kb ,包括 2 5个外显子 .构建克隆的GPI PLDcDNA的真核表达载体 ,通过脂质体转染能表达GPI锚定的胎盘型碱性磷酸酶 (PLAP)而无GPI PLD活性的G9细胞 ,同时设立对照组检测GPI PLDcDNA的功能 .结果显示 ,对照组细胞几乎检测不到GPI PLD活性 ,其表达的PLAP主要位于细胞膜上 ;而转染GPI PLDcDNA的G9细胞能检测到较高水平的GPI PLD活性 ,而且大部分酶活性存在于培养液中 ,其表达的PLAP也主要被释放入培养液 .结果证实 ,从人骨髓基质细胞中克隆的GPI PLDcDNA有生物学功能 ,它能释放细胞膜上GPI锚定蛋白质 .     

GPI-PLD调节CEA的释放对白血病HL-60细胞的增殖和凋亡的影响

糖基化磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶D(glycosyl phosphatidyl inositol specific phospholipase D,GPI-PLD)是人体内唯一可水解细胞膜表面GPI结构、调节GPI锚定蛋白释放的酶.将GPI-PLD转染入急性粒细胞白血病(AGL)的HL-60细胞株,采用实时荧光定量PCR法和Western blot法确定转染后HL-60细胞内GPI-PLD的表达水平;并检测GPI-PLD活性;噻唑蓝(MTT)检测HL-60细胞的增殖;流式细胞仪检测HL-60细胞的凋亡.ELISA检测GPI锚定癌胚抗原(CEA)的表达和释放情况.转染GPI-PLD后,HL-60细胞株中GPI-PLD表达量与活性增加;MTT检测显示,GPI-PLD过表达后HL-60细胞株增殖生长受到抑制;流式检测证实HL-60细胞凋亡增加;且GPI锚定的蛋白质CEA释放增加.该结果提示GPI-PLD基因有抗肿瘤的作用,过表达GPI-PLD后能抑制HL-60细胞增殖且促进其凋亡,所涉机制可能与GPI-PLD释放GPI锚定蛋白,增强白血病细胞对补体杀伤的敏感性有关.     

维甲酸对肝癌细胞HepG2糖基化磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷酯酶D表达及细胞生物学特性的影响

应用MTT、流式细胞仪、免疫印迹法检测全反式维甲酸(ATRA)单独或联合糖基化磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷酯酶D(GPI-PLD)特异性抑制剂1,10-二氮杂菲对肝癌细胞HepG2生物学特性的改变.ATRA使肝癌细胞HepG2 GPI-PLD基因表达及酶活性上调,并呈现剂量和时间依赖性.ATRA可抑制肝癌细胞HepG2增殖,使肝癌细胞Caspase-3表达水平显著增加,Bcl-2表达水平下调,促进肝癌细胞凋亡(P<0.05).ATRA联合1,10-二氮杂菲诱导组细胞,Bcl-2、细胞增殖活性较ATRA单独诱导组显著增强,Caspase-3、凋亡率显著下降.维甲酸可促进肝癌细胞HepG2 GPI-PLD基因表达上调,高活性的GPI-PLD有助于维甲酸抑制肝癌细胞增殖,促进肝癌细胞凋亡.     

重组人磷脂酶D1/腺病毒表达载体的构建与表达

将磷脂酶D1基因及其功能缺陷点突变基因从真核表达载体pCGNPLD1亚克隆至带有绿色荧光标记蛋白的穿梭质粒pAdTrackCMV中;再与腺病毒骨架载体一起在大肠杆菌BJ5183中进行同源重组;阳性重组子经PacⅠ线性化后,转染入病毒组装细胞系293细胞,成功构建磷脂酰胆碱专一性磷脂酶D1重组腺病毒; 并用该病毒颗粒感染嗜铬细胞瘤细胞PC12细胞,高效表达磷脂酶D1蛋白。证明大蛋白基因,如磷脂酶D1基因的同源重组腺病毒表达构建切实可行,为研究其在细胞内的生理功能提供了有力工具。     

维甲酸对人肝癌细胞磷脂酰胆碱专一性磷脂酶D的作用

为了解细胞信号转导与细胞分化间的关系,研究了诱导分化剂全反式视黄酸(ATRA)和13顺视黄酸(13 cis-RA)对7721人肝癌细胞中磷脂酰胆碱专一性磷脂酶D(PC-PLD)的影响。发现ATRA和13 cis-RA除能抑制7721细胞生长,并在形态上向正常方向分化外,分别在第2或第4天使膜结合性PC-PLD的比活力升高,用每瓶细胞的总活力计算,ATRA的作用在第2天也高于13 cis-RA,但13 cis-RA在第4天的效应却高于ATRA,说明13 cis-RA较ATRA的效应滞后。每天更换培养液的条件较不更换时细胞生长速度较快,且更能引起PC-PLD比活力的上升,提示新鲜培养液中可能存在促进生长和增强维甲酸升高PC-PLD的化合物。ATRA在第2天对PC-PLD比活力的作用高于第4天,可能由于第4天细胞增殖加快,细胞中蛋白质含量上升,以至使以蛋白含量计算的酶比活力下降。进一步研究维甲酸使膜结合性PC-PLD升高与蛋白激酶的关系,发现ATRA不论在第2天和第4天均使膜结合性和胞液中蛋白激酶C(PKC)和酪氨酸蛋白激酶(TPK)的比活力下降,说明ATRA使膜结合性PC-PLD活力的升高不是通过PKC 或TPK对PC-PLD的激活作用来实现,其机理有待进一步研究。对维甲酸引起PC-PLD升高的生物学意义作了讨论。     

人重组磷脂酶D_2变构体cDNA和蛋白质序列分析

采用VectorNTI、DNATools等计算机分析软件及信息库,研究人重组磷脂酶D2(rhPLD2)变构体的生物学特征。rhPLD2具有多种基因结构和功能调控元件,其编码的蛋白质具有发挥功能所必需的活性保守基序和一定的空间结构,表明rhPLD2应是一种具有一定生物学功能的异质性蛋白质。     

磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶C的异源表达和应用

旨在研究大肠杆菌产磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶C(PI-PLC)的发酵表达和分离纯化,探究PI-PLC酶切GPI锚定蛋白的效果。依据NCBI数据库中蜡样芽孢杆菌的PI-PLC的基因序列,按照大肠杆菌的密码子偏好性进行密码子优化,合成相应基因序列并构建基因表达载体pGEX-6P-1-PI-PLC。将重组质粒转入受体菌E.coli BL21(DE3)中,通过加入异丙基硫代-β-D-半乳糖苷(IPTG)诱导目的基因PI-PLC表达。经检测,含有GST标签的PI-PLC融合蛋白以可溶蛋白形式存在于菌体破碎上清,分子量约为61 kDa,与预期相符。初步优化诱导表达条件后,发现最佳诱导表达条件为:以接种量5%接种体积分数接种,待菌体生长至OD600nm达到0.5,在16℃条件下以0.3 mmol/L浓度IPTG诱导24 h。利用GST标签对蛋白进行纯化,纯化后的PI-PLC质量浓度为0.52 mg/mL,比酶活为1322.5 U/mg。利用PI-PLC酶液对哺乳动物细胞表面的模式GPI锚定蛋白CD59进行酶切,酶切作用显著。因此,下一步可以将PI-PLC融合蛋白应用于细胞生物学中对GPI-APs的研究和鉴定。     

影响血清中GPI-PLD活性检测的因素

采用在碱性条件下正丁醇抽提的人胎盘膜上的碱性磷酸酶（ＡＬＰ）作底物, 检测血清中糖基磷脂酰肌醇－ 特异性的磷脂酶Ｄ （ＧＰＩ－ＰＬＤ） 的活性水平． 这种ＡＬＰ 含疏水的ＧＰＩ锚定膜结构（ａｎｃｈｏｒ）, 与血清保温后能被其中的ＧＰＩ－ＰＬＤ降解成亲水的不含ＧＰＩ－锚定的ＡＬＰ． 采用Ｔｒｉｔｏｎ Ｘ－１１４ 二相分离法和梯度凝胶电泳法来分离含ＧＰＩ的ＡＬＰ和不含ＧＰＩ的ＡＬＰ, 计算出转化率（％ ）, 用来表示ＧＰＩ－ＰＬＤ酶活性． 对这两种方法进行比较后, 表明在一般实验室条件下, 二相分离法更为简便, 并对其影响因素进行了全面探讨．     

鼠重组磷脂酶D2腺病毒的构建及功能的初步研究

将磷脂酰胆碱专一性磷脂酶D2基因及其功能缺陷点突变基因 (K75 8R)从真核表达载体pCGN中克隆至带有绿色荧光标记蛋白的穿梭质粒pAdTrack CMV中 ;再与腺病毒骨架载体一起在大肠杆菌BJ5183中进行同源重组 ,成功构建磷脂酶D2重组腺病毒。该病毒颗粒感染人胚肾 2 93细胞 ,高效表达磷脂酶D2及其功能缺陷蛋白。这种表达对M3乙酰胆碱受体介导的细胞内磷脂酶D激活无影响。但磷脂酶D2功能缺陷蛋白对蛋白激酶C介导的胞内磷脂酶D激活有显著抑制作用 ;相反 ,磷脂酶D2蛋白有显著增强作用。结果表明     

支气管哮喘豚鼠肺组织中KLF2 的表达及意义

目的:探讨锌指Krüppel样转录因2(KLF2)在豚鼠支气管哮喘肺组织中的表达及意义。方法:30只健康雄性豚鼠,按随机数字表法分为对照组(A组)、哮喘组(B组)及地塞米松治疗组(C组),每组10只。卵清蛋白致敏法复制哮喘模型。观察豚鼠肺组织病理学改变,BALF细胞总数及分类计数;采用原位杂交和RT-PCR检测肺组织中KLF2的mRNA表达情况,免疫组化和Westernblot检测肺组织中KLF2的蛋白表达水平。结果:(1)哮喘组豚鼠BALF中细胞总数、嗜酸性粒细胞百分比(EOS%)、中性粒细胞百分比(NEU%)显著高于对照组(P<0.01),哮喘组肺组织可见大量炎症细胞浸润,及明显气道重塑改变,而地塞米松治疗组BALF炎细胞浸润及肺组织病理改变较哮喘组明显减轻;(2)KLF2mRNA和蛋白在哮喘组表达显著低于对照组,在地塞米松治疗组中的表达明显高于哮喘组,3组差异均有统计学意义(P均<0.01);(3)KLF2蛋白以及mRNA与肺泡灌洗液炎细胞总数及EOS%,NEU%呈负相关。结论:KLF2在支气管哮喘急性发作期模型中表达明显下降,而地塞米松治疗后KLF2的表达上调,提示KLF2可能在支气管哮喘的发病机制与防治中起重要作用。     

支气管哮喘豚鼠肺组织中KLF2的表达及意义

目的：探讨锌指Krüppel样转录因2（KLF2）在豚鼠支气管哮喘肺组织中的表达及意义。方法：30只健康雄性豚鼠,按随机数字表法分为对照组（A组）、哮喘组（B组）及地塞米松治疗组（C组）,每组10只。卵清蛋白致敏法复制哮喘模型。观察豚鼠肺组织病理学改变,BALF细胞总数及分类计数;采用原位杂交和RT-PCR检测肺组织中KLF2的mRNA表达情况,免疫组化和Westernblot检测肺组织中KLF2的蛋白表达水平。结果：（1）哮喘组豚鼠BALF中细胞总数、嗜酸性粒细胞百分比（EOS%）、中性粒细胞百分比（NEU%）显著高于对照组（P〈0.01）,哮喘组肺组织可见大量炎症细胞浸润,及明显气道重塑改变,而地塞米松治疗组BALF炎细胞浸润及肺组织病理改变较哮喘组明显减轻;（2）KLF2mRNA和蛋白在哮喘组表达显著低于对照组,在地塞米松治疗组中的表达明显高于哮喘组,3组差异均有统计学意义（P均〈0.01）;（3）KLF2蛋白以及mRNA与肺泡灌洗液炎细胞总数及EOS%,NEU%呈负相关。结论：KLF2在支气管哮喘急性发作期模型中表达明显下降,而地塞米松治疗后KLF2的表达上调,提示KLF2可能在支气管哮喘的发病机制与防治中起重要作用。     

无菌豚鼠与普通豚鼠血液学参数的比较

目的对普通级豚鼠进行剖宫产,培育无菌豚鼠模型,并比较无菌豚鼠和普通级豚鼠的血液学参数。方法行子宫摘除术摘除子宫,在无菌隔离器中将子宫剥离取仔,用人工哺乳的方法将仔豚鼠培育成无菌豚鼠,并在固定的周期检测豚鼠的无菌情况。采用全血细胞计数分析仪、全自动血液生化分析仪测定无菌豚鼠、普通豚鼠的血常规和血生化参数。用SPSS12.0进行统计分析。结果无菌豚鼠和普通豚鼠在白细胞(WBC)、嗜碱性粒细胞数(BA#)、单核细胞百分比(MO)、血红蛋白浓度(MCHC)、中性粒细胞数(NE#)、嗜酸性粒细胞数(EO#)、淋巴细胞数(LY#)七个血常规指标上有差异显著性,其他指标没有显著性差异;谷丙转氨酶(ALT)、乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)、总蛋白(TP)、白蛋白(ALB)、葡萄糖(GLU)、总胆固醇(CHO)、总胆红素(TBIL)、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇(HDL-C)、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(LDL-C)、甘油三酯(TG)、球蛋白(GLO)、A/G、K、Na、谷酰转肽酶(GGT)15个指标上差异有显著性,其他指标差异无显著性。结论通过规范的子宫摘除术和人工喂养的方法获得符合标准的无菌豚鼠,与普通豚鼠在多项血液学指标上差异有显著性。     

Extension of the 2-Deoxyglucose Method to the Fetus in Utero: Theory and Normal Values for the Cerebral Glucose Consumption in Fetal Guinea Pigs

Abstract: Fetal cerebral metabolism changes during development. The normal fetal metabolic rate must be known to evaluate pathophysiological changes. Therefore, we determined the regional cerebral glucose consumption in the fetal guinea pig. This required the application of the 2-deoxyglucose method to this species. We measured both the transfer coefficients of deoxyglucose and glucose between the maternal arterial plasma and the fetal brain and the lumped constant in chronically prepared undisturbed guinea pig dams using a three-compartment model. Furthermore, the ratio between the initial clearances of deoxyglucose and glucose between the maternal arterial plasma and the fetal brain and the ratio between the phosphorylation coefficients of these substrates in the fetal brain were determined. The total cerebral glucose consumption measured by the deoxyglucose method (10 ± 1.2 µmol/100 g/min) was similar to that calculated from the glucose concentration and the phosphorylation coefficient of glucose in the cerebrum (10 ± 0.4 µmol/100 g/min). We conclude that the 2-deoxyglucose method is applicable to the guinea pig, and we further conclude that in the fetal guinea pig cerebral glucose consumption is 10 times lower than that in the adult.     

Effect of Dietary Vitamin C and Catalase Inhibition on Antioxidants and Molecular Markers of Oxidative Damage in Guinea Pigs

Guinea pigs were fed for five weeks with two diets with different levels of vitamin C, low (33 mg of Vit C/Kg diet) and high (13,200 mg of Vit C/Kg of diet). Catalase was inhibited with 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole (AT) in half of the animals from each dietary group. AT caused an almost complete depletion of liver catalase activity (90%) in both dietary groups. Vitamin C supplementation increased total glutathione peroxidase activity and tissue vitamin C level and decreased levels of protein carbonyls and malondialdehyde (MDA) in both treated and non-treated animals. This vitamin C supplementation did not change any of the other antioxidant defences studied. Our results show that dietary vitamin C supplementation increases global antioxidant capacity and decreases endogenous oxidative damage in the guinea pig liver under normal non-stressful conditions. This supports the protective value of dietary antioxidant supplementation.     

豚鼠生长激素受体及其突变体在哺乳动物细胞中的功能性表达

采用RT PCR克隆得到豚鼠生长激素受体cDNA。序列同源比较显示生长激素受体的一些功能性保守氨基酸在豚鼠生长激素受体中被其他氨基酸所取代。例如 ,哺乳动物生长激素受体中保守的第 170位组氨酸和第 333位酪氨酸分别是受体二聚化和生长激素刺激蛋白质合成及脂生成所必需的 ,但在豚鼠生长激素受体中分别被酪氨酸和丝氨酸所取代。为此 ,采用定点突变法得到了突变体gpGHRY16 8H和 gpGHRS332Y ,并构建了表达质粒 pcDNA3 gpGHR ,pcDNA3 gpGHRY16 8H和pcDNA3 gpGHRS332Y。借助COS 7和CHO细胞 ,研究了豚鼠生长激素受体及其突变体的生物活性。实验表明转染了pcDNA3 gpGHR的COS 7细胞对牛生长激素具有高亲和性 [Ka=1.3× 10 9(mol/L) -1],并且用鼠抗生长激素受体单克隆抗体mAb2 6 3可检测到一分子量约 92kD的蛋白质。在CHO细胞中 ,虽然两个氨基酸的定点突变不影响受体与配体的结合 ,但都提高了生长激素刺激的蛋白质合成而降低生长激素刺激的脂肪生成。蛋白质印迹实验揭示突变体 gpGHRY16 8和gpGHRS332Y分别降低和提高了生长激素诱导的JAK2酪氨酸磷酸化。因此 ,报道了豚鼠生长激素受体在生长激素代谢功能中的调节作用以及受体中保守氨基酸的取代导致配体结合后信号转导的变化。     

NIRF在体内外可明显抑制乙型肝炎病毒抗原的表达

随着对NIRF（Np95/ICBP-90 like RING finger protein）研究的深入,其功能已涉及细胞癌变进程以及表观遗传学等领域. 近期研究显示,NIRF能与HBc (hepatitis B virus core protein )相互结合,但其对乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)抗原表达的影响尚不明确. 本文通过转染pAAV-HBV1.3质粒和高压水动力法尾静脉注射BALB/C小鼠,建立乙型肝炎病毒的细胞和动物模型,研究NIRF对乙型肝炎病毒抗原表达的影响. ELISA检测细胞上清和小鼠血清中HBsAg、HBeAg的分泌和表达情况,Western 印迹或免疫组化染色技术检测HBcAg. 结果显示,乙型肝炎病毒抗原分泌的细胞以及小动物模型建立成功,并且无论在体内外,NIRF都能对它们的表达起抑制作用,期待能为后续的HBV致病机理以及治疗药物的研究提供支持与帮助.     

Recombinant Human Protein C Expression in the Milk of Transgenic Pigs and the Effect on Endogenous Milk Immunoglobulin and Transferrin Levels

Colostrum and milk are natural vehicles for acquiring passive immunity and are valuable tools for decreasing neonatant mortality from diarrheal disease. The effects of recombinant human protein C (rhPC) expression levels on endogenous immunoglobulin and transferrin content of the milk of different lineages of transgenic pigs were studied. The levels of rhPC in the milk ranged from 40 to 1200g/ml. Transgenic pigs with rhPC expression levels less than 500g/ml had no significant differences in milk protein composition with respect to nontransgenic pigs. A line of transgenic pigs having rhPC expression levels of 960–1200g/ml had two- to three-fold higher IgG, IgM, and secretory IgA concentrations compared to other transgenic and nontransgenic pig groups (P<0.05), and four- to five-fold higher transferrin levels than nontransgenic pigs (P<0.05). Changes in milk protein composition were not associated with mastitis or other pathologic disruption of epithelial cell junctions as indicated by normal casein and albumin levels in milk. Since IgG, IgM, secretory IgA, and transferrin are transported into the milk by transcytosis, higher levels of these proteins indicate that transcyctosis in the mammary epithelial cell was likely upregulated in pigs having high rhPC expression levels. This study is the first that shows a statistically significant example that mammary tissue specific expression of a heterologous protein can enhance endogenous phenotypic characteristics of milk.     

Multiple Representations of the Body and Input-Output Relationships in the Agranular and Granular Cortex of the Chronic Awake Guinea Pig

The organization of somatosensory input and the input-output relationships in regions of the agranular frontal cortex (AGr) and granular parietal cortex (Gr) were examined in the chronic awake guinea pig, using the combined technique of single-unit recording and intracortical microstimulation (ICMS). AGr, which was cytoarchitectonically subdivided into medial (AGrm) and lateral (AGrl) parts, also can be characterized on a functional basis. AGrl contains the head, forelimb, and most hindlimb representations; only a small number of hindlimb neurons are confined in AGrm. Different distributions of submodalities exist in AGr and Gr: AGr receives predominantly deep input (with the exception of the vibrissa region, which receives cutaneous input), whereas neurons of Gr respond almost exclusively to cutaneous input. The cutaneous or deep receptive field (RF) of each neuron was determined by natural peripheral stimulation. All studied neurons were activated by small RFs, with the exception of lip, nose, pinna, and limb units of lateral Gr (Grl), for which the RFs were larger.

Microelectrode mapping experiments revealed the existence of three spatially separate, incomplete body maps in which somatosensory and motor representations overlap. One body map, with limbs medially and head rostrolaterally, is contained in AGr. A second map, comparable to the first somatosensory cortex (SI) of other mammals, is found in Gr, with hindlimb, trunk, forelimb, and head representations in an orderly mediolateral sequence. An unresponsive zone separates the head area from the forelimb region. A third map, with the forelimb rostrally and the hindlimb caudally, lies adjacent and lateral to the SI head area. This limb representation, which is characterized by an upright and small size compared to that found in SI, can be considered to be part of the second somatosensory cortex (SII). A distinct head representation was not recognized as properly belonging to SII, but the evidence that neurons of the SI head region respond to stimulation of large RFs located in lips, nose, and pinna leads us to hypothesize that the SII face area overlaps that of SI to some extent, or, alternatively, that the two areas are strictly contiguous and the limits are ambiguous, making them difficult to distinguish.

The input-output relationships were based on the results of RF mapping and ICMS in the same electrode penetration. The intrinsic specific interconnections of cortical neurons whose afferent input and motor output is related to identical body regions show a considerable degree of refinement. The input-output correspondence is especially pronounced for neurons with small RFs. This study confirms and extends similar data recently reported for other rodents.     

Effects of L-Glutamate Transport Inhibition by a Conformationally Restricted Glutamate Analogue (2S,1'S,2'R)-2-(Carboxycyclopropyl)Glycine (L-CCG III) on Metabolism in Brain Tissue In Vitro Analysed by NMR Spectroscopy

(2S,1'S,2'R)-2-(Carboxycyclopropyl)glycine (L-CCG III) was a substrate of Na⁺-dependent glutamate transporters (GluT) in Xenopus laevis oocytes (IC₅₀ 13 and 2 M for, respectively, EAAT 1 and EAAT 2) and caused an apparent inhibition of [³H]L-glutamate uptake in mini-slices of guinea pig cerebral cortex (IC₅₀ 12 M). In slices (350 M) of guinea pig cerebral cortex, 5 M L-CCG III increased both the flux of label through pyruvate carboxylase and the fractional enrichment of glutamate, GABA, glutamine and lactate, but had no effect on total metabolite pool sizes. At 50 M L-CCG III decreased incorporation of ¹³C from [3-¹³C]-pyruvate into glutamate C4, glutamine C4, lactate C3 and alanine C3. The total metabolite pool sizes were also decreased with no change in the fractional enrichment. Furthermore, L-CCG III was accumulated in the tissue, probably via GluT. At lower concentration, L-CCG III would compete with L-glutamate for GluT and the changes probably reflect a compensation for the missing L-glutamate. At 50 M, intracellular L-CCG III could reach > 10 mM and metabolism might be affected directly.