Chromosome repatterning in three representative parrots (Psittaciformes) inferred from comparative chromosome painting

Parrots (order: Psittaciformes) are the most common captive birds and have attracted human fascination since ancient times because of their remarkable intelligence and ability to imitate human speech. However, their genome organization, evolution and genomic relation with other birds are poorly understood. Chromosome painting with DNA probes derived from the flow-sorted macrochromosomes (1-10) of chicken (Gallus gallus, GGA) has been used to identify and distinguish the homoeologous chromosomal segments in three species of parrots, i.e., Agapornis roseicollis (peach-faced lovebird); Nymphicus hollandicus (cockatiel) and Melopsittacus undulatus (budgerigar). The ten GGA macrochromosome paints unequivocally recognize 14 to 16 hybridizing regions delineating the conserved chromosomal segments for the respective chicken macrochromosomes in these representative parrot species. The cross-species chromosome painting results show that, unlike in many other avian karyotypes with high homology to chicken chromosomes, dramatic rearrangements of the macrochromosomes have occurred in parrot lineages. Among the larger GGA macrochromosomes (1-5), chromosomes 1 and 4 are conserved on two chromosomes in all three species. However, the hybridization pattern for GGA 4 in A. roseicollis and M. undulatus is in sharp contrast to the most common pattern known from hybridization of chicken macrochromosome 4 in other avian karyotypes. With the exception of A. roseicollis, chicken chromosomes 2, 3 and 5 hybridized either completely or partially to a single chromosome. In contrast, the smaller GGA macrochromosomes 6, 7 and 8 displayed a complex hybridization pattern: two or three of these macrochromosomes were found to be contiguously arranged on a single chromosome in all three parrot species. Overall, the study shows that translocations and fusions in conjunction with intragenomic rearrangements have played a major role in the karyotype evolution of parrots. Our inter-species chromosome painting results unequivocally illustrate the dynamic reshuffling of ancestral chromosomes among the karyotypes of Psittaciformes.     

The parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes) from the Middle Miocene of Sansan (Gers,Southern France)

The occurrence of Archaeopsittacus sp. (Psittaciformes) in the fossil deposits of Sansan (France) is reported, testifying to a survival of this genus in the Middle Miocene, as Archaeopsittacus verreauxi was described from the Early Miocene of Saint-Gérand-le-Puy (France) and was recorded only from its type locality. The data discussed here indicate the presence of two parrot species from Sansan, as it is the type locality of another parrot species, Pararallus dispar, only known from this locality. The differences between the humeri of these two taxa are described in detail, together with the differences from the other European fossil parrot species. The presence of more than one species of parrot in the same locality is not rare, but in Europe it is recorded in Sansan for the second time. Evidence for parrots also confirms the paleoenvironmental reconstruction of Sansan, as parrots are primarily arboreal species. Archaeopsittacus also represents one of the few common elements between the Early and Middle Miocene European bird assemblages.     

Context-related vocalizations in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus)

A few animal species are capable of vocal learning. Parrots are well known for their vocal imitation abilities. In this study, we investigated whether African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) emit specific vocalizations in specific contexts. We first described the vocal repertoire and its ontogenesis of four captive grey parrots. After a comparison with vocalizations emitted by wild and other captive African grey parrots, we observed that only three call categories were shared by all grey parrots populations, suggesting that isolated populations of parrots develop population-specific calls. Then, we artificially provoked ten different contexts and recorded vocalizations of four captive grey parrots in these situations. Parrots predominantly emitted call categories in some contexts: distress, protestation, alarm, asking (i.e. emitted when a bird wanted something from an experimenter) and contact calls. These results suggest that some calls are learned and can be used in specific contexts.     

Phylogenetic relationships within parrots (Psittacidae) inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene sequences

Blood and tissue samples of 40 individuals including 27 parrot species (15 genera; 3 subfamilies) were collected in Indonesia. Their phylogenetic relationships were inferred from 907 bp of the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene, using the maximum-parsimony method, the maximum-likelihood method and the neighbor-joining method with Kimura two-parameter distance. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that (1) cockatoos (subfamily Cacatuinae) form a monophyletic sister group to other parrot groups; (2) within the genus Cacatua, C. goffini and C. sanguinea form a sister group to a clade containing other congeners; (3) subfamily Psittacinae emerged as paraphyletic, consisting of three clades, with a clade of Psittaculirostris grouping with subfamily Loriinae rather than with other Psittacinae; (4) lories and lorikeets (subfamily Loriinae) emerged as monophyletic, with Charmosyna placentis a basal sister group to other Loriinae, which comprised the subclades Lorius; Trichoglossus+Eos; and Chalcopsitta+ Pseudeos.     

New feather mites of the family Pterolichidae (Acari: Pterolichoidea) from parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes) in Australia

Abstract Seven new feather mite species of the family Pterolichidae are described from various Australian parrots: Apexolichus lathami sp. n. from the swift parrot, Lathamus discolor (Shaw); Titanolichus platycerci sp. n. and Rhytidelasma punctata sp. n. from the pale-headed rosella, Platycercus adscitus (Latham); R. striata sp. n. from the Australian king-parrot, Alisterus scapularis (Lichtenstein); Lorilichus stenolobus sp. n. and Lorilichus curvilobus sp. n. from the rainbow lorikeet, Trichoglossus haematodus (Linnaeus); Psittophagus galahi sp. n. from the galah, Eolophus roseicapillus (Vieillot). We give a brief overview of taxonomic studies of pterolichid mites living on Psittaciformes, and discuss the main diagnostic characters of different generic groups of these mites.     

Electromyographic studies of the syrinx in parrots (Aves,Psittacidae)

Summary The vocal organ (syrinx) of a bird may contain either extrinsic muscles alone or both extrinsic and intrinsic muscles. The former arise and insert on the trachea and affect the syrinx only indirectly; the latter also arise on the trachea but insert directly on syringeal elements. It is widely supposed that syringeal muscles can affect modulations of the sounds the birds make, and further, that the intrinsic muscles are closely associated with such a function. However, the exact roles of the two groups of muscles have not been directly observed.The psittacid syrinx, which has one (for practical purposes) pair of extrinsic and two pairs of intrinsic muscles, is about as simple as one can find in birds capable of uttering a wide variety of sounds. We have taken electromyograms from the syringeal muscles of five species of parrots. In all of these, the extrinsic sternotrachealis showed the simple activation pattern activity previously described from several non-passerine species that possess only extrinsic muscles. The intrinsic muscles, however, showed a variety of activity patterns. The relatively simple call of Cyanoliseus patagonus again showed the simple activation pattern. In Myiopsitta monachus, the muscles showed a string of pulses that matched to pulses of sound in a strongly amplitude modulated call. Agapornis roseicollis used at least two distinct patterns, each associated with a different call.The results are consistent with an hypothesis that, because of their indirect attachment of the syrinx, extrinsic muscles are poorly suited to the production of precise, rapid changes in syringeal action, but rather will function in an on-off switch capacity. Intrinsic muscles are so situated that, given proper neurological stimulus, they can effect a variety of alterations in the sound pattern. Hence, intrinsic muscles are necessary for the evolution of large vocabularies and variable vocal behavior.     

Changes in the activity of captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) over the breeding cycle

The energetic costs of reproduction are likely to be particularly high in the Callitrichidae (marmosets and tamarins), which characteristically produce twin litters. The activity of five captive breeding pairs of cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) was investigated for a 6-month period covering the second half of pregnancy and lactation. Breeding males showed few major changes in activity over this period, but breeding females reduced their levels of locomotion during late pregnancy, and during lactation they spent up to twice as much time feeding and foraging as they did during pregnancy. These results support the hypothesis that the costs that callitrichid females incur when reproducing are likely to have been an important factor in the evolution of these species' communal rearing systems.     

The subplacenta of the red-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta leporina L)

Background  

Hystricognath rodents have a lobed placenta, comprising labyrinthine exchange areas and interlobular trophoblast. These correspond to the labyrinthine and spongy zones of other rodent placentae. Beneath them, however, is a structure unique to hystricognath rodents called the subplacenta. We here describe the subplacenta of the red-rumped agouti and examine the possible functional correlates of this structure.     

Pararalichus gen.n. (Acarina, Pterolichidae) from New World parrots (Aves, Psittacidae)

Pararalichus gen.n. (Pterolichidae, Pterolichinae) is described; two species groups, from species of Brotogeris Vigors and Touit Gray, respectively, include two named and ten new species. From Brotogeris : the type species Pararalichus dilatatus (Favette & Trouessart) stat.n., comb.n. [= Protolichus ( Mesolichus ) hemiphyllus dilatatus ] from Brotogeris jugularis (Müller), Brazil, Guatemala, Panama; P. chrysopteri sp.n. from B. chrysopterus (L.). Guyana, Surinam; P. cyanopterae sp.n. from B. cyanoptera (Pelzeln), Bolivia, Peru; P. pyrrhopteri sp.n. from B. Pyrrhopterus (Latham), Ecuador, Peru; P. sanctithomae sp.n. from B. sanctithomae (Müller), Bolivia, Peru; P. tiricae sp.n. from B. tirica (Gmelin), Brazil; P. versicolori sp.n. from B. versicolorus (Müller), Brazil, Peru. From Touit: P. hemiphyllus (Mégnin & Trouessart) comb.n. [ =Pterolichus (P.) hemiphyllus ] from Touit batavica (Boddaert), Surinam, Trinidad; P. dilectissimae sp.n. thrn T. dilectissima (Sclater & Salvin), Colmbia, Costa Rica; P. huetii sp.n. from T. huetii (Temminck), Brazil, Guyana, Peru; P. parpuratae sp.n. from T. purpurata (Gmelin), Brazil, Guyana, Surinam; P. surdae sp.n. from T. surda (Kuhl), Brazil. All hosts are Central and South American parrots. Mesolichus Trouessart, 1899 is recognized as a monotypical genus.     

Agonistic and courtship behaviour patterns in the skink Chalcides viridanus (Fam. Scincidae) from Tenerife

There have been relatively few attempts to quantitatively describe behaviours in scincid lizards. Chalcides viridanus is a small body-sized skink endemic of Tenerife (Canary Islands). We describe and quantify 18 behaviour patterns (both social and agonistic) of this species, some of which have not been described before for other scincids. Video recordings of male–male, female–female, and male–female interactions were made under laboratory conditions, with controlled light–dark cycle and temperature. We describe several agonistic and courtship behaviour patterns. Within the first context, we detected a new agonistic behaviour for a scincid, “Snout to body”, that appeared at the beginning of agonistic sequences; it consisted of each animal placing its snout in contact with the other individual’s lateral side of the body. The amplitude of head movement during “Head bobbing” was lower than that described for many other lizard species. Agonistic behaviours were shown in intrasexual staged encounters both within males and females. The comparison of behaviour patterns of both types of intrasexual encounters showed that females were more active, exhibiting significantly higher frequencies of behaviour than males. Specifically, females showed the “Snout to body” pattern more frequently than males. In male–female encounters we detected courtship and copulation patterns only in April, when males performed “Bites” and “Snout to body” directed at females.     

Effect of age on seed digestion in parrots (Amazona aestiva)

The objective of this study was to compare the capacity of adult (more than 3 yr old) and young (less than 1 yr old) true parrots to digest seeds that are normally included in their diet in captivity, particularly soybean, sunflower, and corn. All the seeds were offered for 5 d with an interval of 15 d between different diets. The seeds of soybean and corn were boiled for 15 min and soaked in water at ambient temperature for 12 h before being fed to the birds. There were no differences in the digestibilities of crude protein and fats (ether extract) among animals, but the digestibilities of dry matter and crude fiber by the adult animals were higher than those of the young ones. The digestibility of carbohydrate (nitrogen-free extract) by adult birds was higher only for sunflower seeds. It is concluded that the capacity of parrots to digest fiber may change according to the age of the animal. Since the digestion of fiber depends on the action of microorganisms, these results suggest that the colonization of the gastrointestinal tract is delayed or very slow in young parrots.     

Roles of the Drosophila SK channel (dSK) in courtship memory

A role for SK channels in synaptic plasticity has been very well-characterized. However, in the absence of simple genetic animal models, their role in behavioral memory remains elusive. Here, we take advantage of Drosophila melanogaster with its single SK gene (dSK) and well-established courtship memory assay to investigate the contribution of this channel to memory. Using two independent dSK alleles, a null mutation and a dominant negative subunit, we show that while dSK negatively regulates the acquisition of short-term memory 30 min after a short training session, it is required for normal long-term memory 24 h after extended training. These findings highlight important functions for dSK in courtship memory and suggest that SK channels can mediate multiple forms of behavioral plasticity.     

Are haematological parameters related to body condition,ornamentation and breeding success in wild burrowing parrots Cyanoliseus patagonus?

Haematology and plasma biochemistry values are useful tools for ecological research. They have been used to investigate the physiological state and the adaptation of individuals to their habitat, changes in nutritional state of birds, body condition, the level of parasite infestation, male quality, the physical condition of nestlings, etc. In the present study we tested the role of haematological and plasma biochemistry values in burrowing parrots Cyanoliseus patagonus (Aves, Psittaciformes) for determining individual quality and condition. We measured triglyceride levels, plasma protein levels, plasma hue and erythrocyte sedimentation rate of nestlings and breeding adults in a colony in the north of Patagonia, Argentina. We found that plasma triglyceride levels strongly relate to changes in individual condition. Plasma levels of triglycerides were found to be strongly related to mass change, hatching order and brood size in nestlings. Levels of triglycerides were found to reflect reproductive effort in adults: males fledging larger broods had decreased levels of triglycerides. Adults with lower body condition had increased erythrocyte sedimentation rates. Plasma hue showed a strong relationship with an ornamental trait, the red abdominal patch of male adults, and with parameters of structural body size. Thus, we have shown that haematological and plasma biochemistry values, especially plasma levels of triglycerides, are good indicators of individual quality and condition in nestlings and breeding birds.     

African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) use inference by exclusion to find hidden food

Exclusion allows the detection of hidden food when confronted with the choice between an empty and a potentially baited food location. However, exclusion may be based on avoidance of the empty location without drawing inferences about the presence of the food in the baited location. So far, such inferences have been demonstrated in the great apes only: after seeing an experimenter eating one of two food types, which both had been hidden previously in two boxes, the apes were able to choose the box that still contained the other food type. African grey parrots are capable of exclusion, and we here assessed if they are capable of inference by exclusion. In our task, two different but equally preferred food items were hidden in full view of the birds under two opaque cups. Then, an experimenter secretly removed one food type and showed it to the bird. Similarly to the apes, one out of seven parrots significantly preferred the baited cup; control conditions rule out that its choice was based on associative learning or the use of olfactory cues. Thus, we conclude that-like the apes-some grey parrots are able to infer the location of a hidden food reward.     

Behavioral responses of hybrid lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) to courtship songs

The study of hybrid courtship songs and the behavioral responses of hybrids and parental individuals to hybrid songs can be useful in understanding the origin of reproductive isolation among species that differ mainly in their courtship songs. Here we test the hypotheses (a) that hybrid lacewings prefer hybrid songs to either of the parental songs from a cross betweenChrysoperla plorabunda andC. johnsoni, and (b) that parental individuals prefer their own song over those of hybrids. Analysis of songs showed that most features of hybrid songs are intermediate between the two parents. Hybrids organize their songs with a series of simple volleys like those ofC. plorabunda. Female hybrids from two reciprocal crosses and females and males of the parental species were presented with choices of hybrid and parental songs. Hybrids responded more to recordings of hybrid songs than to recordings ofC. plorabunda but did not differ in the responses given toC. johnsoni and hybrid songs. In contrast, males and females of both parental lines preferred to duet with recordings of their own song types and did not respond to hybrid songs. Our results demonstrate that hybrids would be at a disadvantage in nature, because neitherC. plorabunda norC. johnsoni will respond to their songs.