Phylogenetic analyses of two mitochondrial genes and one nuclear intron region illuminate European subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) gene flow, taxonomy, and introduction dynamics

Phylogenetic analyses of multiple DNA sequences were conducted to elucidate gene flow, evolutionary patterns, taxonomy, and the dynamics of two accidental introductions: Reticulitermes lucifugus grassei into Devon, United Kingdom and R. flavipes into Europe. Two mitochondrial DNA genes totaling 1495 bp and a 380-bp ribosomal intergenic transcribed spacer were sequenced. Neighbor-joining and parsimony analyses revealed that multiple female lineages of R. lucifugus grassei were introduced into Devon possibly from southwestern France, where the species was indigenous. The taxonomic status of the European R. santonensis as a species separate from the North American R. flavipes has been questioned since it was described in 1924. Phylogenetic analyses revealed a close genetic relationship between R. flavipes from the United States and R. santonensis from France. These analyses, coupled with morphological and chemotaxonomic data, provide strong support for R. santonensis and R. flavipes being the same species. They also suggested that R. santonensis infestations likely resulted from R. flavipes being introduced into Europe.     

The distribution of chydorid Cladocera in Canada

The distribution of chydorid Cladocera in Canada is given based on the examination of 584 samples collected from all the provinces and territories from 1978 through to 1984. Some species show regional distributions, while others are widely distributed. The preferences shown by some species to particular substrates are discussed. Further evidence is presented to show that some taxa previously claimed to be conspecific in Europe and North America may be different. In some instances the adult males tend to be more highly differentiated than the females, particularly in the structure of the postabdomen. The importance of taxonomic and distributional studies in understanding the biogeography of North American chydorids is discussed.     

Review: Taxonomy of Nitella (Charales, Charophyceae) based on comparative morphology of oospores and multiple DNA marker phylogeny using cultured material

The genus Nitella is the largest group in the Charales and has the highest diversity of vegetative and oospore morphologies. In his worldwide monograph on the Charales, R. D. Wood characterized the sections and species of Nitella mainly on the basis of vegetative morphology and treated oospore wall morphology as diagnostic at the infraspecific level. Therefore, many species of Nitella exhibiting distinct external morphology of the oospore wall (EMOW) were reduced to infraspecific rank and only 53 of 204 species previously described were recognized within Nitella . However, recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies have demonstrated the phylogenetic validity of using EMOW for diagnosing some species of Nitella . More recently, a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) study of internal morphology of the oospore wall (IMOW) and multiple DNA marker analyses using both nuclear and chloroplast gene sequences were conducted to improve our understanding of the taxonomy of Nitella at the species level, on the basis of cultured material of a large number of species. Multiple DNA marker analyses resolved detailed and robust phylogenetic relationships within the genus and demonstrated the taxonomic and phylogenetic significance of IMOW. In addition, they supported the taxonomic decisions based on differences in oospore morphology, suggesting that an integrated approach, involving both SEM studies of the EMOW and IMOW and multiple DNA marker analyses, is appropriate to address problems at lower taxonomic levels within the genus, as well as to construct a natural taxonomic system for the genus. In this paper, recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies are reviewed and recent improvements in taxonomy of Nitella are summarized. Moreover, the evolution of morphological features and phylogenetic relationships within Nitella are discussed, focusing especially on oospore morphology.     

A reinvestigation into the taxonomic status of Riccia himalayensis and Riccia discolor based on scanning electron microscopic and chemotaxonomical studies

Riccia himalayensis St. (Ms.) Kashyap is a common species found in the Himalayas from the foot of the mountains to an altitude of 2743 m. Riccia discolor Lehm. et Lindb. on the other hand, is the common and most widely distributed monsoon species, that has been reported from both the western and eastern Himalayas, as well as from the plains of Assam, west Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, south India, etc. Dispute still exists regarding the taxonomic status of R. himalayensis , which is considered a synonym of R. discolor by some taxonomists, according to whom R. himalayensis has no specific status. This has led to a lot of errors in interpreting R. discolor . On the other hand many authors have considered R. himalayensis to be a composite species of R. discolor , R. billardieri and R. gangetica .
The present investigation was aimed to reinvestigate the taxonomic status of R. himalayensis and R. discolor based on morphological analysis of thallus and spore surface by light microscope and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies and biochemical analyses of the protein profile by SDS-PAGE. Results reveal that although the two species share certain common morphological features, they are two distinct species chemotaxonomically.     

Neogobius fluviatilis in Lake Balaton—a Ponto-Caspian goby new to the fauna of central Europe

A new species of Ponto-Caspian Neogobius fluviatilis is reported from Lake Balaton. This is the most western occurrence in central Europe. The main taxonomic marks and the distinguishing features from the related species are discussed and the geographical ranges are summarized. The immigration into Lake Balaton, the successful acclimatization indicated by spawning and some ecological characters are also discussed.     

Comparative morphology of the larval ventromental plates of European species of Chironomus Meigen (Diptera: Chironomidae)

Abstract. The ventromental plates of larvae of twenty-six cytologi-cally identified species of Chironomus Meigen from Europe are described. Variation in plate features, including size, striae, inner and outer hook series, and ventral surface ornamentation, is reported. A principal components analysis based on plate characters is undertaken, and the taxonomic composition of the resulting groupings is discussed.     

A taxonomic revision of the pipunculid fly genus Chalarus Walker, with particular reference to the European fauna

Twenty-one species of Chalarus Walker are described from Europe, 11 of them new. The puparial remains of 15 species are described. Type material of all previously described Chalarus species except C. velutinus (Macquart, 1835) was examined. The status of C. holosericeus (Meigen, 1824) is revised, and exiguus (Haliday, 1833) is confirmed as a valid species. Lectotypes are designated for C. holosericeus and C. spurius (Fallén, 1816). Five species-groups are tentatively proposed. Separate keys to females and males are given. The status of Chalarus species described from outside Europe is discussed, and two of these, C. kamijoi Morakote, in Morakote & Hirashima (1990) and C. konishii Morakote, in Morakote & Hirashima (1990), are synonymized with fimbriatus Coe and exiguus (Haliday) respectively. The functional significance of some taxonomic characters, particularly of the eyes and ovipositor, is discussed.     

The alien flora of Europe: a taxonomic and biogeographic review

Abstract. A geographic and taxonomic overview of the non-indigenous plant species of Europe, based on the ‘Flora Europaea’ is given. The flora of Europe includes 1568 species which have either expanded their ranges within Europe under human influence (naturalized European species) or are of non-European origin (exotic species). The latter group consists of 580 species (37%) which form a diverse group in terms of their taxonomic composition and geographic origin. The exotics are represented by 113 families, of which the Compositae, Rosaceae and Gramineae are most important. The ratio of species to families is low. Most exotic species in Europe originate from the Americas and Asia. Countries of southern Europe have a higher relative number of exotics in their non-native flora than northern ones. The species-range size distribution differs between naturalized European and exotic species; the latter are on average more widespread than the naturalized.     

Nonhuman primate hybridization and the taxonomic status of Neanderthals

The present study examines the taxonomic status of Middle Paleolithic Neanderthals by comparing their observed minimum genetic divergence from Upper Paleolithic modern humans in Europe with that observed between macaque species from Sulawesi that are known to hybridize and fully intergrade in the wild. The genetic divergence, and differentiation between Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic modern humans, as indicated by pairwise minimum genetic distances and F(ST) values calculated from the estimated minimum genetic relationship (R) matrix derived from craniometric data, are significantly greater than those observed both between hybridizing and noninterbreeding Sulawesi macaque species, suggesting that mate recognition and the possibility of gene flow between Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic modern humans might have been greatly reduced. These results support a species-level taxonomic distinction for the Neanderthals as suggested by proponents of the replacement model. Furthermore, assumptions regarding the monophyletic origin of modern humans from outside Europe are likely valid.     

The phytogeography of European and Mediterranean heath species (Ericoideae, Ericaceae): a quantitative analysis

The geographic ranges of heath species in Europe and the Mediterranean and their relationships with environmental (climatic and ecogeographic) variables and biological features are analysed by means of multivariate methods. In particular, twinspan classifications into floristic elements and floristic regions, DCA floristic ordinations, CCA environment-constrained ordinations and CCA biology-constrained ordinations are carried out. Results of the analyses show a correspondence with conventional regionalization analyses based on broader criteria, and less correspondence with numerical analyses of other taxonomic groups at a similar scale. This lack of fit depends on the particular history and ecology of the taxonomic groups under study. A number of climatic (temperature and water stress) and geographic (coast length) variables are associated with different types of heaths according to their geographical ranges (continental, Mediterranean, Atlantic). Biological features of heaths account for a small part of the variation in range, but the association of temperate heaths with a preference for acid soils, of Mediterranean heaths with pubescence, and of Atlantic heaths with plant height is of interest. Heath species richness throughout Europe and the Mediterranean is analysed by multiple regression analyses and, apart from a strong influence of area size, a significant effect of water conditions, temperature and proximity to sea is detected. The area with the highest heath species richness is Western Mediterranean. Additional classification, ordination and multiple regression analyses of heaths in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal, the areas with the highest heath diversity) revealed similar patterns to those found in Europe and the Mediterranean. The effect of heterogeneity of the studied units at this latter scale is removed in the Iberian analysis because of the relative homogeneity of the units considered at this scale.     

Terrestrial mammal feces: a morphometric summary and description

The study of feces of terrestrial mammals brings out biological and ecological data such as the species presence, diet, behaviour, territory, parasitic fauna, and home-range use, which can be applied for conservation projects and support paleoecological research that use coprolites as the main source of study. Although the new biotechnological techniques allow more accurate data, the diagnosis based on morphometric analyses permits the primary identification of the taxonomic group origin to support the best choice of subsequent analyses. We present the compilation list of fecal shape and measurements available in the literature published in North America, Eastern and Southern Africa, Europe, and new data from Brazil. Shape and diameters are the best characteristics for taxonomic identification. Feces were assembled in 9 groups that reflect the Order, sometimes the Family, and even their common origin.     

Emerging rickettsioses

Ticks are known to carry and transmit a number of microbial agents that cause diseases in humans and animals. Among these are members of the order Rickettsiales (alpha-proteobacteria), which include the genera Rickettsia and Ehrlichia. The most common and well-known Rickettsial human disease in Europe is Mediterranean Spotted Fever (MSF), caused by Rickettsia conorii. In recent years, a number of new Rickettsia species have been discovered in Europe, some of which have been shown to be pathogenic to humans. These discoveries have been facilitated by use of sequence-based molecular identification techniques. In Italy, it is generally believed that R. conorii is the only Rickettsia species present, and clinical tests for MSF rely on antigens raised against this bacterium. We are currently undertaking a molecular screening study of Rickettsiales-bacteria in ticks from various regions of Italy, to check for the potential presence of species from this order recently discovered in other parts of Europe. So far, we have identified a number of additional species in ticks collected from northern, central and southern regions. These include the known pathogens R. helvetica and R. slovaca as well as two species which may or may not be of medical relevance: R. monacensis and R. sp. IRS4. As a part of this survey, we have identified a novel alphaproteobacterium from the medically important tick Ixodes ricinus. This bacterium, tentatively named IricES1, has the unusual property of existing within the mitochondria, as well as the cytoplasm, of ovarian cells. To our knowledge, this is the only known example of a bacterium that is able to enter the mitochondria of animals. Our recently published electron microscopic data indicates that the bacterium enters mitochondria between the inner and outer membranes, and then proceeds to consume the inner mitochondrial matrix. We will present further data on this bacterium, including: 1) its phylogenetic position based on various molecular sequences, 2) its localization within the tick based on in situ hybridization; 3) its distribution among tick populations in Europe; 4) preliminary data on attempts at culturing this bacterium in a variety of cell types. Possible interactions between the bacterium and its host will be discussed. Ticks are known to carry and transmit a number of microbial agents that cause diseases in humans and animals. Among these are members of the order Rickettsiales (alpha-proteobacteria), which include the genera Rickettsia and Ehrlichia. The most common and well-known Rickettsial human disease in Europe is Mediterranean Spotted Fever (MSF), caused by Rickettsia conorii. In recent years, a number of new Rickettsia species have been discovered in Europe, some of which have been shown to be pathogenic to humans. These discoveries have been facilitated by use of sequence-based molecular identification techniques. In Italy, it is generally believed that R. conorii is the only Rickettsia species present, and clinical tests for MSF rely on antigens raised against this bacterium. We are currently undertaking a molecular screening study of Rickettsiales-bacteria in ticks from various regions of Italy, to check for the potential presence of species from this order recently discovered in other parts of Europe. So far, we have identified a number of additional species in ticks collected from northern, central and southern regions. These include the known pathogens R. helvetica and R. slovaca as well as two species which may or may not be of medical relevance: R. monacensis and R. sp. IRS4. As a part of this survey, we have identified a novel alphaproteobacterium from the medically important tick Ixodes ricinus. This bacterium, tentatively named IricES1, has the unusual property of existing within the mitochondria, as well as the cytoplasm, of ovarian cells. To our knowledge, this is the only known example of a bacterium that is able to enter the mitochondria of animals. Our recently published electron microscopic data indicates that the bacterium enters mitochondria between the inner and outer membranes, and then proceeds to consume the inner mitochondrial matrix. We will present further data on this bacterium, including: 1) its phylogenetic position based on various molecular sequences, 2) its localization within the tick based on in situ hybridization; 3) its distribution among tick populations in Europe; 4) preliminary data on attempts at culturing this bacterium in a variety of cell types. Possible interactions between the bacterium and its host will be discussed.     

Small Mammal Investigation in Spotted Fever Focus with DNA-Barcoding and Taxonomic Implications on Rodents Species from Hainan of China

Although mammals are a well-studied group of animals, making accurate field identification of small mammals is still complex because of morphological variation across developmental stages, color variation of pelages, and often damaged osteological and dental characteristics. In 2008, small mammals were collected for an epidemiological study of a spotted fever outbreak in Hainan, China. Ten species of small mammals were identified by morphological characters in the field, most using pelage color characters only. The study is extended here, in order to assess whether DNA barcoding would be suitable as an identification tool in these small mammals. Barcode clusters showed some incongruence with morphospecies, especially for some species of Rattus and Niviventer, so molecular delineation was carried out with an expanded dataset of combined cytochrome b (Cyt-b) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences. COI sequences were successfully amplified from 83% of collected mammals, but failed in all specimens of Suncus murinus, which were thus excluded in DNA barcoding analysis. Of note, ten molecular taxonomic units were found from samples of nine morphologically identified species. Accordingly, 11 species of small mammals were present in the investigated areas, including four Rattus species, three Niviventer species, Callosciurus erythraeus, Neohylomys hainanensis, Tupaia belangeri, and Suncus murinus. Based on the results of the phylogenetic and molecular delineation analyses, the systematic status of some rodent species should be redefined. R. rattus hainanicus and R. rattus sladeni are synonyms of R. andamanensis. R. losea from China and Southeast Asia comprises two independent species: R. losea and R. sakeratensis. Finally, the taxonomic status of three putative species of Niviventer should be further confirmed according to morphological, molecular and ecological characters.     

Taxonomy of the Carex flava complex (Cyperaceae) in Finland

The morphological variation in the Carex flava complex (sect. Ceratocystis ) in Finland, particularly taxa described by Alvar Palmgren as endemic to northern Europe, was studied using numerical analyses. Discriminant analyses were used to maximize the separation of the taxa. However, the separation of the taxa described by Palmgren was weak. The taxonomic treatment of the C. flava complex in Finland based on morphology, ecology, distribution and hybridization of the taxa is presented. Four species are recognized: Carex flava (the lectotype is selected here), C. lepidocarpa, C. demissa and C. viridula. C. lepidocarpa includes ssp. lepidocarpa and ssp. jemtlandica . In the polymorphic C. viridula , three taxa are recognized: var. viridula , var. bergrothii and var. pulchella . A key to the taxa is presented. The distribution of the taxa in Finland is presented, and their ecology is briefly discussed.     

Phyletic diversity and locomotion in primitive European hominids.

A major contribution of previous analyses of Miocene hominoid postcrania is the recognition of a great ape grade of locomotor morphology in the late Miocene. However, in the absence of a consideration of the taxonomic and phylogenetic implications of the specimens concerned, the importance of this conclusion remains unappreciated. This paper presents a revised view of the positional implications of late Miocene hominid fossils and considers some of the taxonomic and phyletic implications of these specimens. The taxonomic status of a number of large catarrhine specimens from Europe (attributed to Dryopithecus, Sivapithecus, Austriacopithecus, Paidopithex, Rudapithecus) is discussed. The functional and phyletic significance of this material reveals a complex pattern of behavioral and phyletic diversity among large-bodied catarrhines in Europe and suggests that this diversity evolved in situ from circum-Mediterranean middle Miocene ancestors.     

The effect of taxonomic resolution on the assessment of ecological water quality classes

Within the ecological assessment of running waters based on benthic macroinvertebrates different levels of taxonomic resolution (species, genus, family and higher) are in use. Although assessment systems are often developed with detailed data on species level, water managers and other end-users could like to use data on higher taxonomic levels to assess the ecological quality of a water body because of limited human or money resources. The question that arises is, if an assessment system built with species level data is also applicable using data with a higher taxonomic resolution. Within the AQEM project a multimetric assessment system was developed to evaluate the ecological quality classes (from bad (1) to high (5) ecological quality) of different stream types throughout Europe. The present study focuses on the question whether the resulting water quality class changes using the AQEM Assessment Software (AAS) with different taxonomic resolutions and if yes, how large the deviations of ecological quality classes from the original classes are and if the deviations are unidirectional. For analyses data from four Austrian and two Dutch stream types were used. It is demonstrated that the assignment of a site to an ecological quality class may change if different taxonomic levels are used. Deviations in both directions (higher/lower ecological quality class) were observed. In most cases the divergence was only one ecological quality class, but also larger deviations occasionally occurred. The causes of changes in the assessment were investigated by separately looking into the underlying metrics of the multimetric system. Some of the evaluated metrics rely on autecological information on species level and are simply not applicable on higher taxonomic levels. Other metrics worked on higher taxonomic levels as well and showed more or less good distinctions between ecological quality classes. It is concluded that the AQEM Assessment Software is not applicable if data on higher taxonomic levels are used. As the deviations were not unidirectional and ranged from one to three ecological quality classes, it is not possible to include a correction factor for using the software with higher taxonomic resolution data.     

Species richness of pelagic Cladocera of large lakes in the eastern hemisphere

The composition of the pelagic cladoceran species assemblages in some large, well-studied, lakes of Europe, Asia and Africa is reviewed based on original and literature data. In general, pelagic cladocerans are taxonomically less well studied than some littoral groups. Only the limnetic members of the family Sididae and some Daphnia have recently been revised, whereas knowledge of species diversity of other Daphniidae (including moinas) and Bosminidae is missing. Future detailed taxonomic studies may lead to considerable changes in understanding of limnetic zooplankton composition.     

Morphology informed by phylogeny reveals unexpected patterns of species differentiation in the aquatic moss Rhynchostegium riparioides s.l

Bryophyte floras typically exhibit extremely low levels of endemism. The interpretation, that this might reflect taxonomic shortcomings, is tested here for the Macaronesian flora, using the moss species complex of Rhynchostegium riparioides as a model. The deep polyphyly of R. riparioides across its distribution range reveals active differentiation that better corresponds to geographic than morphological differences. Morphometric analyses are, in fact, blurred by a size gradient that accounts for 80% of the variation observed among gametophytic traits. The lack of endemic diversification observed in R. riparioides in Macaronesia weakens the idea that the low rates of endemism observed in the Macaronesian bryophyte flora might solely be explained by taxonomic shortcomings. To the reverse, the striking polyphyly of North American and European lineages of R. riparioides suggests that the similarity between the floras of these continents has been over-emphasized. Discriminant analyses point to the existence of morphological discontinuities among the lineages resolved by the molecular phylogeny. The global rate of error associated to species identification based on morphology (0.23) indicates, however, that intergradation of shape and size characters among species in the group challenges their identification.