Darwin's ‘one special difficulty’: celebrating Darwin 200

Darwin identified eusocial evolution, especially of complex insect societies, as a particular challenge to his theory of natural selection. A century later, Hamilton provided a framework for selection on inclusive fitness. Hamilton''s rule is robust and fertile, having generated multiple subdisciplines over the past 45 years. His suggestion that eusociality can be explained via kin selection, however, remains contentious. I review the continuing debate on the role of kin selection in eusocial evolution and suggest some lines of research that should resolve that debate.     

Formalizing Darwinism and inclusive fitness theory

Inclusive fitness maximization is a basic building block for biological contributions to any theory of the evolution of society. There is a view in mathematical population genetics that nothing is caused to be maximized in the process of natural selection, but this is explained as arising from a misunderstanding about the meaning of fitness maximization. Current theoretical work on inclusive fitness is discussed, with emphasis on the author''s ‘formal Darwinism project’. Generally, favourable conclusions are drawn about the validity of assuming fitness maximization, but the need for continuing work is emphasized, along with the possibility that substantive exceptions may be uncovered. The formal Darwinism project aims more ambitiously to represent in a formal mathematical framework the central point of Darwin''s Origin of Species, that the mechanical processes of inheritance and reproduction can give rise to the appearance of design, and it is a fitting ambition in Darwin''s bicentenary year to capture his most profound discovery in the lingua franca of science.     

Bioelectromagnetics,Carl Durney,and dosimetry: Some historical remarks

The contributions of Carl Durney to dosimetry have decisively advanced the bioelectromagnetics field and led to significant revisions of relevant health standards. Three items come to mind while studying his work: 1. The work of Carl Durney and his colleagues in dosimetry has advanced the bioelectromagnetics field most significantly whereas more abundant work of a biomedical nature has had less impact. More biophysics work is desirable. 2. The rationale for the specific absorption rate as a basis of health standards needs further elaboration. The need for scaling animal results is stressed. 3. Dosimetry at the cellular level (microdosimetry) is essential if one cares to discuss direct field interactions at the cellular and macromolecular level. Carl Durney's recognition of this need is stated. Carl Durney's wide range of productive interests is indicated by several tables. They summarize his many contributions to electrical engineering, education, bioelectromagnetic dosimetry, hyperthermia, NMR, and field‐induced biophysical phenomena at the molecular and cellular level. His scientific work is summarized, including how his interest changed with time. His scientific accomplishment and productive interaction with students, colleagues, and society sets an example to be admired. Bioelectromagnetics 20:3–8, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Psychological and social evaluation in cases of deliberate self-poisoning seen in an accident department.

The outcome in 115 consecutive patients with mild self-poisoning seen by junior medical staff and discharged from the accident department was compared with that of 98 similar patients admitted to the medical wards. Psychiatrists saw only four patients in the accident department and 25 admissions. In making their assessments the junior medical staff considered psychosocial factors as well as the patients'' physical condition. Most patients recommended for further care, and discharged from the accident department, subsequently received it. Repetition rates were similar in the two groups and there had been no suicides when patients were followed up at one year. It is feasible for junior staff in an accident department to decide whether patients with self-poisoning need admission or may be discharged with or without subsequent referral for psychiatric or social work help.     

Linnaean sources and concepts of orchids

Background

Linnaeus developed a robust system for naming plants and a useful, if mechanical, system for classifying them. His binomial nomenclature proved the catalyst for the rapid development of our knowledge of orchids, with his work on the family dating back to 1737 in the first edition of his Genera Plantarum. His first work devoted to orchids, indeed the first monograph of the family, was published in 1740 and formed the basis for his account in Species Plantarum, published in 1753, in which he gave a binomial name to each species. Given the overwhelming number of orchids, he included surprisingly few – only 62 mostly European species – in Species Plantarum, his seminal work on the plants of the world. This reflects the European origin of modern botany and the concentration of extra-European exploration on other matters, such as conquest, gold and useful plants. Nevertheless, the scope of Linnaeus'' work is broad, including plants from as far afield as India, Japan, China and the Philippines to the east, and eastern Canada, the West Indies and northern South America to the west. In his later publications he described and named a further 45 orchids, mostly from Europe, South Africa and the tropical Americas.

Scope

The philosophical basis of Linnaeus'' work on orchids is discussed and his contribution to our knowledge of the family assessed. His generic and species concepts are considered in the light of current systematic ideas, but his adoption of binomial nomenclature for all plants is his lasting legacy.Key words: Classification, Linnaeus, nomenclature, Orchidaceae, orchids     

Hunters and Horticulturalists: A Preliminary Report of the 1972–4 Excavations in the Manim Valley,Papua New Guinea

Ole Christensen, a PhD scholar in the Department of Prehistory in the Research School of Pacific Studies at the Australian National University, was killed in a car accident on his way to work on 16 December last year. Ole was a Canadian citizen of Danish birth, whose parents settled in rural Alberta. He took his BA(Hons) in 1970 and his MA in 1972, both in the Department of Archaeology at the University of Calgary. His MA thesis, ‘Banff Prehistory: prehistoric subsistence and settlement in Banff National Park, Alberta’, is evidence of an early interest in economically and ecologically oriented archaeology, which he furthered by taking courses and laboratory work in pollen analysis. A visit to South America in 1970 with an archaeological team investigating early farming settlements in the Cauca Valley, Colombia, combined with a long standing interest in Polynesian anthropology to encourage him to seek to do graduate work on tropical agricultural systems somewhere in the Pacific. When he subsequently applied for the ANU scholarship which he took up in early 1972, he seemed a highly suitable person to work in association with the Department of Prehistory's project into New Guinea Highlands' agricultural history then about to start at Kuk in the upper Wahgi valley (see Mankind, 3:177–83). The proposition put to Ole was that he should undertake a study of the hydraulic technology and agrarian organization of one of the large scale agricultural systems operating in drained swamp that still flourish in Irian Jaya at the Paniai (Wissel) Lakes and in the Baliem valley, to supplement the archaeological work in the Wahgi where such systems had once but no longer existed. He felt, however, that his ethnographic background was too slim and he chose instead to do work for which he was better trained, the study of resource utilization over time in a side valley off the Wahgi close to the site of the Department's swamp excavations. The beautifully designed project that he carried out is described in the following article by him. It is based on a seminar he gave at ANU shortly before his death. I should like to make two points about this project that the article does not stress. One is the wealth of plant materials recovered from the excavations by wet sieving every ounce of excavated soil, when the nearest water source was sometimes some hundreds of precipitous yards away. The abundant pandanus seeds found in all levels of the excavated sites and their change over time from thick-walled, allegedly wild, to thin-walled, allegedly cultivated, varieties may hold important evidence for the chronology of horticulture in New Guinea and the question of whether an independent development of plant domestication took place there. The second point I want to make is that against his expectations he found himself to be a born and insatiable ethnographic fieldworker. With his Wurup friends he surveyed and recorded all the resource zones in terms of which his selection of sites for excavation was made and took part in all the activities of food procurement and processing that were responsible for the archaeological evidence that he set out to recover and interpret. A practical man of quiet and simple tastes, he was as settled in his bush house at Wurup as in his rural retreat near Canberra. He was unassertive, tolerant and deeply sympathetic and made undemanding and unobtrusive friendships with people in both homes. He is a loss to them and to his profession. His colleagues at the University of Calgary are establishing an academic prize in his memory. To his colleagues at ANU falls the responsibility of ensuring that the important work of this promising young scholar is brought to completion.     

Riccardo (Rico) Wittek (1944-2008)

Riccardo (Rico) Wittek died 26 September 2008 in Switzerland. Rico was well known for his work on the molecular biology of poxviruses and for his work with the World Health Organization on biosafety that led to international guidelines for work with dangerous infectious agents. His colleagues Erwin G. Van Meir, Daniel Lavanchy, and Bernard Moss have written Rico''s memorial.Lynn W. EnquistEditor in Chief, Journal of Virology     

Human–animal relationship influences husbandry practices,animal welfare and productivity in pig farming

The nature of the relationship between humans and farm animals has multiple repercussions on the animals and the farmers and varies with farmers attitudes towards their animals. In particular, this relationship influences animal welfare and human working conditions. The present study, part of a larger research project investigating human–animal relationship (HAR) in pig farming and ways to improve it, had two objectives: 1) to investigate the HAR in a diversity of pig farming situations and to evaluate the possible correlation between farmer attitudes, pigs' reactions to humans, husbandry practices, animal health, welfare and productivity and 2) to find a way to rapidly assign a farmer to a profile, in order to better adapt course content during training sessions on HAR. The study focused on 52 farrow-to-finish farms and consisted of a semi-structured interview with the farmer, observations of the farmer in contact with his/her livestock, two human approach tests conducted on sows and growers and productivity data. Finally, a questionnaire was left at the farm to be filled out by all stockpersons on the farm. Interviews, analyzed using a thematic analysis followed by multiple correspondence analysis and ascendant hierarchical clustering, showed that some farmers develop husbandry practices to improve their HARs and identified three farmer profiles that have been named in relation to the place of the HAR in their profession: Profile 1 farmers for whom HAR is secondary in their work with their pigs, Profile 2 for whom the HAR is useful in their work with their pigs and Profile 3 for whom HAR is central in their work with their pigs. Logistic regression models of the relationships between behavioral tests and productivity data showed that confident sows produce and wean more piglets than fearful sows and that sows of Profile 3 farmers trust more humans than those of Profile 1 or 2 farmers. Farmers' responses to the questionnaire did not predict their profile assignment. Our results confirm the main role of the farmer's attitude towards animals on their farming practices, animal welfare and productivity. The farmers who have more confident pigs and better productivity are those for whom the farm animal is central to their profession, express the most pleasure in working with them and convey empathy for them.     

The Troubled Adolescent Patient—How the General Practitioner May Be Helpful

The disturbed adolescent is psychologically isolated from the worlds of childhood and adulthood. His sense of alienation results from both the upsurge of instinctual drives and his uneasy attempts to master changing physical attributes and new freedoms and responsibilities. The former result in conformity and in concerns about “normality.” The latter lead to confusion and to alternating rebellion and over-dependence.The general practitioner may be the first person consulted by the troubled adolescent or his parents. The physician''s sensitivity can be crucial in helping the family work together toward a solution. Persistent anxiety in either parent or child is in itself a problem. An understanding of those factors inherent in the adolescent experience may provide the physician with a recognition of disturbance denied by the adolescent with a facade of bravado or indifference.The physician must be prepared to help the adolescent accept a protracted period of stress, usually with only partial resolution of distressing problems.     

Sick Absence Certification. Analysis of one Group Practice in 1967

Certificates of inability or fitness to work were issued on 6,161 occasions in one year in one group practice. Half the episodes of illness lasted for seven days or less, and two thirds of the episodes ended on a Sunday. Clearly in most cases the doctor does no more than countersign the patient''s declaration of his fitness or not to work. Abolition of short-term medical certification would probably have little effect on absenteeism or the sums paid out as sick benefit.     

Fröhlich's Coherent Excitations & The Cancer Problem—A Retrospecive Overview of His Guiding Philosophy

The guiding philosophy underlying Fröhlich's approach to biology from the side of theoretical physics is summarized, and illustrated, in the context of his prediction of (dynamic) coherent excitations in living systems, based on their dielectric and elastic properties, and far-from-equilibrium (nonlinear) character. His envisaged role of these coherent excitations in cell division and its control is outlined, together with the associated implications for cancer—as understood both at the time of his work and subsequently.     

Anglo-Canadian Exchange in General Practice: British View of Canadian General Practice

The Canadian general practitioner is remunerated by an item-of-service system of payment which encourages servicing demands rather than needs, discourages delegation of work to paramedical workers, and involves his staff in a massive amount of paper work. He has an excellent hospital attachment, which unfortunately is overdone. His community facilities are piecemeal and his office organization is rudimentary. There are few incentives for good general practice in the community. He spends an inordinate amount of time examining well people. The university departments of general practice are extremely good and much should be heard from them very quickly. The patient''s attitude towards his doctor is quite different from the one prevailing currently in Britain.I returned happily to British general practice.     

On whose shoulders we stand - the pioneering entomological discoveries of Károly Sajó

The excellence of Károly Sajó as a researcher into Hungary’s natural history has been undeservedly neglected. Yet he did lasting work, especially in entomology, and a number of his discoveries and initiatives were before their time.Born in 1851 in Győr, he received his secondary education there and went to Pest University. He taught in a grammar school in 1877–88 before spending seven years as an entomologist at the National Phylloxera Experimental Station, later the Royal Hungarian State Entomological Station. Pensioned off at his own request in 1895, he moved to Őrszentmiklós, where he continued making entomological observations on his own farm and wrote the bulk of his published materials: almost 500 longer or shorter notes, articles and books, mainly on entomological subjects.Sajó was among the first in the world to publish in 1896 a study of how the weather affects living organisms, entitled Living Barometers. His Sleep in Insects, which appeared in the same year, described his discovery, from 1895 observations of the red turnip beetle, Entomoscelis adonidis (Pallas, 1771), of aestivation in insects – in present-day terms diapause.It was a great loss to universal entomology when Sajó ceased publishing about 25 years before his death. His unpublished notes, with his library and correspondence, were destroyed in the World War II. His surviving insect collection is now kept in the Hungarian Natural History Museum, Budapest.     

The role of routine serum testosterone testing: routine hormone analysis is not indicated as an initial screening test in the evaluation of erectile dysfunction

A 60-year-old male physician is self-referred to your office for evaluation of his erectile dysfunction, which has been worsening for 5 years. He reports his erections rarely achieve fullness for penetration, and he is unable to ejaculate. He has tried sildenafil citrate (Viagra(R); Pfizer Inc, New York, NY) with mild success in the past. He has a strong libido and feels healthy. He rarely exercises, but is on his feet most of the day at work. He has been healthy his whole life and never seeks a doctor's attention. He has no other medical problems. His only medication is a baby aspirin once a day. His physical examination, including genitalia, is normal. As part of his initial visit, should his serum testosterone level be checked by his urologist?     

Further evaluation of physical fitness age versus physiological age in women

The present study was conducted to examine further whether adult women who are in a state of high physical fitness possess high physiological functions, and also to investigate whether those who exercise regularly are able to maintain a high quality of various physiological functions. The subjects of this study were 249 healthy Japanese adult women (aged 20–70 years). Of these subjects 30 had jogged or walked regularly for more than 3 years. The physiological ages (PA) and physical fitness ages (FA) of the individuals were estimated from 17 physiological function tests and 5 physical fitness tests, respectively, by principal components analyses. The results indicated that there was a significant correlation between PA and FA (r = 0.76, P < 0.01). To examine this relationship in more detail, the subjects were classified into three physical fitness groups (high, normal and low) based on the deviation from the regression line of FA. Comparison of the mean PA among three physical fitness groups revealed that the high physical fitness groups demonstrated a much lower PA (physiologically younger), while the low physical fitness groups showed a relatively higher PA (physiologically older) in spite of their equivalent chronological ages. From this series of studies, a new concept is proposed where different individuals have different peak physiological capacities, but that these capacities change with age at similar rates. It is suggested that interventions such as exercise and a proper diet for promoting health could increase peak functional capacity but have little effect on the rate of decline. Accepted: 3 March 1998     

A Broad-Based Estimation of the Physical Work Capacity of Young Men

The physical work capacity of young men (17–21 years old) was estimated during this broad-based study. The subjects were divided into two groups depending on the level of their motor activity: those who were in general sport fitness programs (166 subjects) and those who had achieved high recognition in sports (149 subjects). Two stages in the development of physical work capacity in young men were detected. The first stage covered the 17- to 18-year-old men and was characterized by a significant increase in physical development and aerobic capacity, the improved hemodynamic responses to physical exercise, and a high tension in the cardiac regulatory mechanisms. The second stage (18–21 years) was a period of relative stabilization of physical development and body functions, during which the organism came to a new functional level typical of adulthood. A comparative analysis of the physical work capacity in subjects with different levels of motor activity showed that the indices of physical development, physical fitness, and aerobic capacity in 17-year-old athletes exceeded the same indices in the untrained age-matched group. Physical work capacity was significantly higher in athletes than in the untrained subjects during the whole juvenile period. In athletes the age-related physical fitness and aerobic capacity increased to a greater extent but physical development increased to a lesser extent than the same in the untrained subjects.     

Biological age versus physical fitness age

A population of healthy middle-aged (n = 69) and elderly men (n = 12), who participated in a health promotion program, was studied to determine whether really physically fit individuals are in good biological condition, and also whether improvement of physical fitness in the middle-aged and the elderly reduces their "rate of aging". Biological and physical fitness ages of the individuals studied were estimated from the data for 18 physiological function tests and 5 physical fitness tests, respectively, by a principal component model. The correlation coefficient between the estimated biological and physical fitness ages was 0.72 (p less than 0.01). Detailed analyses of the relationship between the estimated biological and physical fitness ages revealed that those who manifested a higher ("older") physical fitness age did not necessarily have a higher biological age, but those who manifested a lower ("younger") physical fitness age were also found to have a lower biological age. These results suggested that there were considerable individual variations in the relationship between biological condition and physical fitness among individuals with an old physical fitness age, but those who were in a state of high physical fitness maintained a relatively good biological condition. The data regarding the elderly men who had maintained a regular exercise program indicated that their estimated biological ages were considerably younger than the expected values. This might suggest that in older individuals regular physical activity may provide physiological improvements which in turn might reduce "the rate of aging".     

Development of the Canadian Home Fitness Test

The Canadian Home Fitness Test is a self-administered procedure in which the participant steps at an age- and sex-specific rhythm controlled by recorded music, then palpates the pulse immediately following activity. Validation of the test has shown a correlation of 0.72 with the results of a standard submaximum bicycle ergometer test, while the directly measured maximum oxygen intake is correlated even more closely (r = 0.88) with the attained stepping rate, body weight and recovery heart rate. Given modest training, subjects could measure their immediate postexercise heart rate (correlation with electro-cardiographic data, r = 0.94), although 10-second counts underestimated the true rate by an average of 7 beats/min. The safety of the test will be established ultimately by experience in its use in a large population; nevertheless, both theoretical considerations and results of trials in over 14 000 adults suggest the procedure can be self-administered without serious consequences. It is also well accepted by the general public and arouses considerable interest in most homes. The test can thus be recommended as providing an approximate measure of an individual''s physical fitness in order to stimulate an increase in personal physical activity. It also has potential as a simple screening procedure that would allow paramedical personnel to record fitness levels and standardized exercise electrocardiograms in large segments of the population.     

In defense of Louis Pasteur: Critique of Gerald Geison's deconstruction of Pasteur's discovery of molecular chirality

Louis Pasteur discovered the phenomenon of molecular chirality, based on his studies of tartrate crystals. His finding remains one of the most important discoveries in the history of chemistry and a fundamentally important chemical phenomenon, with essential implications in biology. In his 1995 book The Private Science of Louis Pasteur, the eminent historian of science Gerald L. Geison (1943‐2001) was highly critical of much of Pasteur's work including his discovery of molecular chirality. The in‐depth analysis provided in this article indicates, however, that the negative assessment of Pasteur's chirality work by Geison is entirely without scientific basis. Criticisms of Pasteur in the book for other “transgressions” in his chirality work, such as supposed influences of his personal biases and stubbornly held a priori notions, misrepresentation of his scientific work in his publications and lectures, and unethical and career‐minded conduct, are also not supported by the evidence. Other troubling features of the book include a broad failure to assure accuracy in a variety of fundamental and important information, including errors in names, dates, events, referencing, indexing, and French‐language text.     

Paul Ehrlich: Pathfinder in Cell Biology 1. Chronicle of His Life and Accomplishments in Immunology,Cancer Research,and Chemotherapy1: Paul Ehrlich's Recipe for Success: “Patience,Ability, Money and Luck”

The paper reviews the life of Paul Ehrlich and his biomedical accomplishments in immunology, cancer research, and chemotherapy. Ehrlich achieved renown as an organic chemist, histologist, hematologist, immunologist, and pharmacologist. He disliked the formality of school but managed to excel in Latin and mathematics. His role model was an older cousin, Carl Welgert, who became a lifelong friend. Ehrlich studied medicine at Breslau, Strasbourg, Freiburg, and Leipzig, coming under the influence of Wilhelm Waldeyer, Julius Cohnheim, Rudolf Heidenhein, and Ferdinand Cohn. As a medical student, Ehrlich was captivated by structural organic chemistry and dyes. When he was 23, his first paper was published on selective staining. His doctoral thesis, “Contribution to the Theory and Practice of Histological Staining” contained most of the germinal ideas that would guide his future career. Most of his early work was centered in Berlin at Charité Hospital, where he did pioneering studies on blood and intravital staining, and at Robert Koch's Institute for Infectious Diseases, where he undertook important investigations in Immunology. Ehrlich became an authority on antitoxin standardization and developed the “side-chain theory” of antibody formation for which he was later awarded the Nobel Prize. He became director of an Institute for Experimental Therapy in Frankfurt where he continued research in immunology and carried out routine serum testing. He developed new lines of investigation in cancer research and originated the field of chemotherapy. Using principles developed in his early work with dyes, he successfully treated certain experimental trypanosomal infections with azo dyes. His crowning accomplishment was discovering that the compound Salvarsan could control human syphilis. Ehrlich's legacy in immunology and chemotherapy is discussed and an intimate portrait is drawn of Ehrlich the person.