Biodegradation of organic pollutants by halophilic bacteria and archaea

Hypersaline environments are important for both surface extension and ecological significance. As all other ecosystems, they are impacted by pollution. However, little information is available on the biodegradation of organic pollutants by halophilic microorganisms in such environments. In addition, it is estimated that 5% of industrial effluents are saline and hypersaline. Conventional nonextremophilic microorganisms are unable to efficiently perform the removal of organic pollutants at high salt concentrations. Halophilic microorganisms are metabolically different and are adapted to extreme salinity; these microorganisms are good candidates for the bioremediation of hypersaline environments and treatment of saline effluents. This literature survey indicates that both the moderately halophilic bacteria and the extremely halophilic archaea have a broader catabolic versatility and capability than previously thought. A diversity of contaminating compounds is susceptible to be degraded by halotolerant and halophile bacteria. Nevertheless, significant research efforts are still necessary in order to estimate the true potential of these microorganisms to be applied in environmental processes and in the remediation of contaminated hypersaline ecosystems. This effort should be also focused on basic research to understand the overall degradation mechanism, to identify the enzymes involved in the degradation process and the metabolism regulation.     

Phylogeny and ecophysiological features of prokaryotes isolated from temporary saline tidal pools

Although hypersaline environments have been extensively examined, only a limited number of microbial community studies have been performed in saline tide pools. We have studied a temporary salt-saturated tide pool and isolated prokaryotes from the water. Chlorinity measurements revealed that the tide pool brine could be characterized as one of the most hypersaline ecosystems on earth. Enumeration of microorganisms at different salinities showed that the tide pool was dominated by moderate halophiles. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the prokaryotic strains isolated were related to the bacterial genera Rhodovibrio, Halovibrio, Aquisalimonas, Bacillus and Staphylococcus and to the haloarchaeal species Haloferax alexandrinus. Four bacterial isolates were distantly related to their closest validly described species Aquisalimonas asiatica (96.5 % similarity), representing a novel phylogenetic linkage. Ecophysiological analysis also revealed distinct phenotypic profiles for the prokaryotic strains analyzed. The herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetate could be effectively utilized by selected strains as the sole carbon source, but phenolic compounds could not be utilized by any of the halophilic isolates examined. None of the halophilic strains were able to grow without the presence of sea salt or seawater. Based on these results, we conclude that moderate halophilic bacteria rather than extremely halophilic archaea dominate in such a hypersaline environment.     

Isolation of hydrocarbon-degrading extremely halophilic archaea from an uncontaminated hypersaline pond (Camargue, France)

Little information exists about the ability of halophilic archaea present in hypersaline environments to degrade hydrocarbons. In order to identify the potential actors of hydrocarbon degradation in these environments, enrichment cultures were prepared using samples collected from a shallow crystallizer pond with no known contamination history in Camargue, France, with n-alkanes provided as source of carbon and energy. Five alkane-degrading halophilic archaeal strains were isolated: one (strain MSNC 2) was closely related to Haloarcula and three (strains MSNC 4, MSNC 14, and MSNC 16) to Haloferax. Biodegradation assays showed that depending on the strain, 32 to 95% (0.5 g/l) of heptadecane was degraded after 30 days of incubation at 40°C in 225 g/l NaCl artificial medium. One of the strains (MSNC 14) was also able to degrade phenanthrene. This work clearly shows for the first time the potential role of halophilic archaea belonging to the genera Haloarcula and Haloferax in the degradation of hydrocarbons in both pristine and hydrocarbon-contaminated hypersaline environments.     

Microbial diversity in hypersaline wastewater: the example of tanneries

In contrast to conventional wastewater treatment plants and saline environments, little is known regarding the microbial diversity of hypersaline wastewater. In this study, the microbial communities of a hypersaline tannery effluent, and those of three treatment systems operating with the tannery effluent, were investigated using 16S rDNA phylogenetic markers. The comparative analysis of 377 bacterial sequences revealed the high diversity of this type of hypersaline environment, clustering within 193 phylotypes (≥ 97% similarity) and covering 14 of the 52 divisions of the bacterial domain, i.e. Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Chlorobi, Planctomycetes, Spirochaetes, Synergistes, Chloroflexi, Thermotogae, Verrucomicrobia, OP3, OP11 and TM7. Most of the phylotypes were related to halophilic and pollutant-degrading bacteria. Using statistical analysis, the diversity of this type of environment was compared to that of other environmental samples selected on the basis of their salinity, oxygen content and organic load.     

Interrelationships between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dunaliella</Emphasis> and halophilic prokaryotes in saltern crystallizer ponds

Thanks to their often very high population densities and their simple community structure, saltern crystallizer ponds form ideal sites to study the behavior of halophilic microorganisms in their natural environment at saturating salt concentrations. The microbial community is dominated by square red halophilic Archaea, recently isolated and described as Haloquadratum walsbyi, extremely halophilic red rod-shaped Bacteria of the genus Salinibacter, and the unicellular green alga Dunaliella as the primary producer. We review here, the information available on the microbial community structure of the saltern crystallizer brines and the interrelationships between the main components of their biota. As Dunaliella produces massive amounts of glycerol to provide osmotic stabilization, glycerol is often postulated to be the most important source of organic carbon for the heterotrophic prokaryotes in hypersaline ecosystems. We assess here, the current evidence for the possible importance of glycerol and other carbon sources in the nutrition of the Archaea and the Bacteria, the relative contribution of halophilic Bacteria and Archaea to the heterotrophic activity in the brines, and other factors that determine the nature of the microbial communities that thrive in the salt-saturated brines of saltern crystallizer ponds. Three-letter abbreviations for names of genera of Halobacteriaceae conform the recommendations of the ICSP Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Halobacteriaceae.     

Characterization of halotolerant Bicosoecida and Placididea (Stramenopila) that are distinct from marine forms,and the phylogenetic pattern of salinity preference in heterotrophic stramenopiles

Recent culture‐based studies demonstrate the distinctiveness of the microbial eukaryote biota of very hypersaline environments. In contrast, microscopy‐based faunistic studies suggest that the biota of habitats of more moderate hypersalinity (60–150‰) overlaps substantially with that of marine environments, but this has barely been studied with modern techniques. To investigate the diversity and salinity tolerance range of these organisms, eight cultures of heterotrophic stramenopiles were established from (or from nearby) moderately hypersaline locations. These isolates represent five independent groups; Groups A, B and C are bicosoecids; Groups D and E belong to Placididea. One isolate (Group A) is a strain of the widespread marine species Cafeteria roenbergensis, and cannot grow above 100‰ salinity. The other isolates – Groups B–E – can all grow at 150–175‰ salinities and are probably moderate halophiles. Groups B–E all represent previously unsequenced species or even genera, although Group B is the sister group of the borderline extreme halophile Halocafeteria. The high level of novelty en countered suggests that moderately hypersaline environments may harbour a heterotrophic stramenopile biota distinct from that of marine environments. Interestingly, our new isolates are all most closely related to marine or halophilic forms, and our phylogenies show large clades defined by saline/non‐saline habitats within bicosoecids, placidomonads and related lineages. In particular, most freshwater/soil bicosoecids form one well‐supported clade. The sole major exception is Bicosoeca, which is intermixed with marine environmental sequences originally referred to as ‘MAST‐13’, which are from brackish water, not typical seawater. It seems that the freshwater/marine barrier has been crossed very few times in the evolutionary history of these heterotrophic stramenopile flagellates.     

Isolation and characterisation of Thiobacillus halophilus sp. nov., a sulphur-oxidising autotrophic eubacterium from a Western Australian hypersaline lake

The isolation of a novel obligately chemolithotrophic, halophilic and extremely halotolerant Thiobacillus from a hypersaline lake is described. Attempts to demonstrate sulphur- and ferrous iron-oxidizing chemolithotrophs in neighbouring hypersaline lakes were unsuccessful. The organism isolated differs from any other Thiobacillus species previously described and is formally named as Thiobacillus halophilus. It possesses ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase and grows chemolithoautotrophically on thiosulphate, tetrathionate and sulphur, oxidising them to sulphate. Kinetic constants for oxidation of sulphide, thiosulphate, trithionate and tetrathionate are presented. The organism is obligately halophilic, growing best with 0.8–1.0 M NaCl, and tolerating up to 4 M NaCl. Optimum growth was obtained at about 30° C and pH 7.0–7.3. It contains ubiquinone Q-8 and its DNA contains 45 mol % G+C. Organisms of this type might contribute significantly to the autotrophic fixation of carbon dioxide in some hypersaline extreme environments of the kind described.     

Formation and breakdown of glycine betaine and trimethylamine in hypersaline environments

Glycine betaine is accumulated as a compatible solute in many photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic bacteria — the last being unable to synthesize the compound - and thus large pools of betaine can be expected to be present in hypersaline environments. A variety of aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms degrade betaine to among other products trimethylamine and methylamine, in a number of different pathways. Curiously, very few of these betaine breakdown processes have yet been identified in hypersaline environments. Trimethylamine can also be formed by bacterial reduction of trimethylamine N-oxide (also by extremely halophilic archaeobacteria). Degradation of trimethylamine in hypersaline environments by halophilic methanogenic bacteria is relatively well documented, and leads to the formation of methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia.     

Effects of different ion compositions on growth of obligately halophilic protozoan Halocafeteria seosinensis

Substantial halophilic organisms have been found in 100–200‰ salinities. These ranges represent a highly specialized halophilic environment to which only a few halotolerant species have adapted. Recent studies have underlined the existence of diverse obligately halophilic protozoa in the salinity ranges of 100–200‰. The ranges of salinity under which these organisms can grow have been examined to some extent, but the balance of specific ions that will support growth has not been investigated. The heterotrophic nanoflagellate Halocafeteria, the type strain of which grows optimally at 150‰ salinity and 35°C, is a commonly encountered obligate halophile found in very hypersaline environments. These extreme environments can vary in their Mg:Ca ratios (i.e. weight ratios) and sulfate concentrations. To examine growth response of Halocafeteria to the different chemical compositions, densities of Halocafeteria seosinensis strain EHF34 were monitored in seven different ion composition media for 9 days at 1- to 2-day intervals (at 150‰ salinity and 35°C, with no prey limitation). Halocafeteria does not grow at Mg:Ca ratios of 35 and 100 and at high sulfate concentrations of 11.6 and 31.6 g l⁻¹. It grows well in 0.6 g l⁻¹ sulfate media at Mg:Ca ratios of 2, 10 or 35, but not 100. The present study demonstrates that the growth of the obligate halophile Halocafeteria can be affected by different ion compositions in hypersaline environments. Therefore, Halocafeteria may not be ubiquitous in hypersaline environments due to its ionic requirements.     

Molecular identification of β-carotene hyper-producing strains of Dunaliella from saline environments using species-specific oligonucleotides

Sequence-specific-oligonucleotides analysis has been used to identify Dunaliella bardawil, D. salina and D. parva from hypersaline environments based on their structural features of introns from the 18S rDNA. Carotenogenic and halophilic strains such as D. bardawil and D. salina were identified as harboring II and I introns within 18S rDNA, respectively. This is the first report on the existence of D. bardawil in saline water bodies of Mexico and Latin America.     

Evolution of bacterial flora from a subterranean saline well by graduated salinity changes in enrichment media

The bacterial flora of samples taken from a subterranean saline well was enriched (1) by periodic salinity increase and (2) by periodic salinity decrease, both at 25° and 35°C. During the enrichment process, bacterial flora, including halotolerant, marine, moderately and extremely halophilic bacteria, were enumerated. Results were similar at both temperatures. Marine bacteria and moderately halophilic microorganisms were the most favoured groups, predominating between 3 and 30% (w/v) salt content; extremely halophilic bacteria also appeared when salinity reached 30% (w/v) and halotolerant bacteria were poorly represented. The taxonomic distribution of 125 selected strains, chosen at random from counting media, was essentially similar to those from other hypersaline environments.     

Microbial diversity and complexity in hypersaline environments: A preliminary assessment

The microbial communities in solar salterns and a soda lake have been characterized using two techniques: BIOLOG, to estimate the metabolic potential, and amplicon length heterogeneity analysis, to estimate the molecular diversity of these communities. Both techniques demonstrated that the halophilic Bacteria and halophilic Archaea populations in the Eilat, Israel saltern are dynamic communities with extensive metabolic potentials and changing community structures. Halophilic Bacteria were detected in Mono Lake and the lower salinity ponds at the Shark Bay saltern in Western Australia, except when the crystallizer samples were stressed by exposure to Acid Green Dye #9899. At Shark Bay, halophilic Archaea were found only in the crystallizer samples. These data confirm both the metabolic diversity and the phylogenetic complexity of the microbial communities and assert the need to develop more versatile media for the cultivation of the diversity of bacteria in hypersaline environments. Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology (2002) 28, 48–55 DOI: 10.1038/sj/jim/7000175 Received 20 May 2001/ Accepted in revised form 15 June 2001     

Reconstitution of a Thermostable Xylan-Degrading Enzyme Mixture from the Bacterium Caldicellulosiruptor bescii

Xylose, the major constituent of xylans, as well as the side chain sugars, such as arabinose, can be metabolized by engineered yeasts into ethanol. Therefore, xylan-degrading enzymes that efficiently hydrolyze xylans will add value to cellulases used in hydrolysis of plant cell wall polysaccharides for conversion to biofuels. Heterogeneous xylan is a complex substrate, and it requires multiple enzymes to release its constituent sugars. However, the components of xylan-degrading enzymes are often individually characterized, leading to a dearth of research that analyzes synergistic actions of the components of xylan-degrading enzymes. In the present report, six genes predicted to encode components of the xylan-degrading enzymes of the thermophilic bacterium Caldicellulosiruptor bescii were expressed in Escherichia coli, and the recombinant proteins were investigated as individual enzymes and also as a xylan-degrading enzyme cocktail. Most of the component enzymes of the xylan-degrading enzyme mixture had similar optimal pH (5.5 to ∼6.5) and temperature (75 to ∼90°C), and this facilitated their investigation as an enzyme cocktail for deconstruction of xylans. The core enzymes (two endoxylanases and a β-xylosidase) exhibited high turnover numbers during catalysis, with the two endoxylanases yielding estimated k_cat values of ∼8,000 and ∼4,500 s⁻¹, respectively, on soluble wheat arabinoxylan. Addition of side chain-cleaving enzymes to the core enzymes increased depolymerization of a more complex model substrate, oat spelt xylan. The C. bescii xylan-degrading enzyme mixture effectively hydrolyzes xylan at 65 to 80°C and can serve as a basal mixture for deconstruction of xylans in bioenergy feedstock at high temperatures.     

Halophily and halotolerance in cyanophytes

The survival, growth and distribution of organisms in hypersaline environments is discussed using cyanophytes (cyanobacteria) as examples. The distinction between halophilic (Na⁺-requiring) and halotolerant organisms is not adequate to describe the entire spectrum of adaptations to salt. The classical division into stenohaline (narrow) and euryhaline (wide) adaptational types, with optima identified as oligo-, meso- and polyhaline, better reflects both organismal adaptations and the environmental conditions to which these are adjusted and is therefore recommended as a conceptual model.Two independent properties of organisms are growth and survival. Organisms requiring narrow ranges of salt concentration are considered specialists and are restricted to environments with relatively constant salinities at any particular concentration. Organisms which tolerate wide ranges of fluctuation in salinity are considered generalists. The existence of separate and distinct microbial assemblages in these two types of environments is demonstrated in marine intertidal zones and seasonal salt works, representative of fluctuating salinity, and in the open ocean. The hypersaline ponds of Yallahs, Jamaica, and Solar Lake, Sinai represent different but relatively constant salinities. It is concluded that cyanophytes speciate along the salinity gradient, and that separate halophilic taxa occupy environments with relatively constant salinities.Proceedings of the fourth College Park Colloquium on Chemical EvolutionLimits of Life, University of Maryland, College Park, 18–20 October 1978.     

Saline Systems highlights for 2006

Saline Systems is a journal devoted to both basic and applied studies of saline and hypersaline environments and their biodiversity. Here, I review the reports and commentaries published in the journal in 2006, including some exploring the geochemistry of saline estuaries, lakes, and ponds, others on the ecology and molecular biology of the indigenous halophilic organisms, and still others addressing the environmental challenges facing saline environments. Several studies are relevant to applications in biotechnology and aquaculture.     

The bioenergetic basis for the decrease in metabolic diversity at increasing salt concentrations: implications for the functioning of salt lake ecosystems

Examination of the microbial diversity in hypersaline lakes of increasing salt concentrations shows that certain types of dissimilatory metabolism do not occur at the highest salinities. Examples are methanogenesis from hydrogen and carbon dioxide or from acetate, dissimilatory sulfate reduction with oxidation of acetate, and autotrophic nitrification. The observations can be explained on the basis of the energetic cost of haloadaptation used by the different metabolic groups and the free-energy change associated with the dissimilatory reactions. All halophilic microorganisms spend large amounts of energy to maintain steep gradients of Na⁺ and K⁺concentrations across their cytoplasmic membrane. Most Bacteria and also the methanogenic Archaea produce high intracellular concentrations of organic osmotic solutes at a high energetic cost. The halophilic aerobic Archaea (order Halobacteriales) and the halophilic fermentative Bacteria (order Halanaerobiales) use KCl as the main intracellular solute. This strategy, while requiring far-reaching adaptations of the intracellular machinery, is energetically more favorable than production of organic compatible solutes. By combining information on the amount of energy available to each physiological group and the strategy used to cope with salt stress, a coherent model emerges that provides explanations for the upper salinity limit at which the different microbial conversions occur in hypersaline lakes.     

Denitrifying haloarchaea within the genus Haloferax display divergent respiratory phenotypes,with implications for their release of nitrogenous gases

Haloarchaea are extremophiles, generally thriving at high temperatures and salt concentrations, thus, with limited access to oxygen. As a strategy to maintain a respiratory metabolism, many halophilic archaea are capable of denitrification. Among them are members of the genus Haloferax, which are abundant in saline/hypersaline environments. Three reported haloarchaeal denitrifiers, Haloferax mediterranei, Haloferax denitrificans and Haloferax volcanii, were characterized with respect to their denitrification phenotype. A semi-automatic incubation system was used to monitor the depletion of electron acceptors and accumulation of gaseous intermediates in batch cultures under a range of conditions. Out of the species tested, only H. mediterranei was able to consistently reduce all available N-oxyanions to N₂, while the other two released significant amounts of NO and N₂O, which affect tropospheric and stratospheric chemistries respectively. The prevalence and magnitude of hypersaline ecosystems are on the rise due to climate change and anthropogenic activity. Thus, the biology of halophilic denitrifiers is inherently interesting, due to their contribution to the global nitrogen cycle, and potential application in bioremediation. This work is the first detailed physiological study of denitrification in haloarchaea, and as such a seed for our understanding of the drivers of nitrogen turnover in hypersaline systems.     

Selective enrichment,isolation and molecular detection of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salinibacter</Emphasis> and related extremely halophilic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacteria</Emphasis> from hypersaline environments

Salinibacter is a genus of red, extremely halophilic Bacteria. Thus far the genus is represented by a single species, Salinibacter ruber, strains of which have been isolated from saltern crystallizer ponds in Spain and on the Balearic Islands. Both with respect to its growth conditions and its physiology, Salinibacter resembles the halophilic Archaea of the order Halobacteriales. We have designed selective enrichment and isolation techniques to obtain Salinibacter and related red extremely halophilic Bacteria from different hypersaline environments, based on their resistance to anisomycin and bacitracin, two antibiotics that are potent inhibitors of the halophilic Archaea. Using direct plating on media containing bacitracin, we found Salinibacter-like organisms in numbers between 1.4×10³ and 1.4×10⁶ml⁻¹ in brines collected from the crystallizer ponds of the salterns in Eilat, Israel, being equivalent to 1.8–18% of the total colony counts obtained on identical media without bacitracin. A number of strains from Eilat were subjected to a preliminary characterization, and they proved similar to the type strain of S. ruber. We also report here the isolation and molecular detection of Salinibacter-like organisms from an evaporite crust on the bottom of salt pools at the Badwater site in Death Valley, CA. These isolates and environmental 16S rRNA gene sequences differ in a number of properties from S. ruber, and they may represent a new species of Salinibacter or a new related genus. Guest Editor: John M. Melack Saline Waters and their Biota     

Distribution, abundance and diversity of the extremely halophilic bacterium Salinibacter ruber

Since its discovery in 1998, representatives of the extremely halophilic bacterium Salinibacter ruber have been found in many hypersaline environments across the world, including coastal and solar salterns and solar lakes. Here, we review the available information about the distribution, abundance and diversity of this member of the Bacteroidetes.