Group foraging by the herbivorous cichlid fish,Petrochromis fasciolatus,in Lake Tanganyika

Group foraging of the algae eating cichlid,Petrochromis fasciolatus, was studied along a rocky shore in Lake Tanganyika, in an area occupied by the feeding territories of several herbivorous cichlid species. SolitaryP. fasciolatus or schools comprising a few members only were nearly always repelled from such territories, although larger schools (40–250 individuals) ofP. fasciolatus were able to overwhelm the defenses of territory owners and enable subsequent foraging. The frequency and duration of individual foraging sessions on the algal mats were positively correlated with group size, probably owing to individuals in large schools suffering fewer attacks from territory owners. Almost all of the foraging sites ofP. fasciolatus were inside the territories of other herbivorous cichlids, especially those ofNeolamprologus moorii (more than 80% of total), in which the algal density was more than 10 times that in territories of the other species.N. moorii territories included only 4% rocky substrate, indicating that schools ofP. fasciolatus selectively chose territories containing rich resources.     

Ecophysiology of Aufwuchs-eating cichlids in Lake Tanganyika: niche separation by trophic specialization

Synopsis The Aufwuchs-eating cichlids of Lake Tanganyika show clear trophic differences that are correlated to their morphology, physiology and foraging behaviour. The species are grouped into three categories of relative intestinal length according to their feeding habits. A correlation between the intestinal length and the diet could be demonstrated, ranging from around 2.5 for species ingesting more animal food, to 7.8 for detritivorous and microalgivorous species. The relative intestinal length of domesticTropheus moorii, raised in aquaria was significantly lower than that of wild individuals by a factor of 1.7, demonstrating a wide range of phenotypic adaptability. The activities of trypsin and amylase were at an equal level in four Aufwuchseating species, but the activity of laminarinase of a detritivorous-microalgivorous species (Petrochromis orthognathus) was 2.6 times higher than that of an algivorous species (Tropheus moorii). The laminarinase seems to be an excellent marker enzyme for detritivorous or microalgivorous feeding.     

Coexistence of permanently territorial cichlids of the genus Petrochromis through male-mating attack

Coexistence mechanisms of permanently territorial fishes proposed hitherto have been mainly based on interspecific competition. To test the hypothesis of the coexistence through male-mating aggression (Kohda, 1995a), spacing patterns of feeding territories of three coexisting herbivorous cichlids, Petrochromis polyodon, P. trewavasae and P. famula, were investigated in a homogeneous habitat at a shallow rocky shore in Lake Tanganyika. All three species maintained individual feeding territories that were defended against both conspecifics and congenerics and rarely overlapped either intra- or interspecifically. Territories of three species were scattered and covered almost all rocky bottoms. Territorial attacks usually occurred near the border of feeding territories. But male P. polyodon, the largest and socially most dominant fish, attacked conspecific males far beyond their feeding territories, which were widely separated. Removal of some territory owners suggested that such attacks result in the separate distribution of male P. polyodon territories. The interstitial space between P. polyodon feeding territories resulting from their mating aggression can be occupied by subordinate congeneric fishes. Male-mating attack of dominant males of Petrochromis will facilitate the coexistence of other congeners.     

Interspecific territoriality in gibbons (Hylobates lar and H. pileatus) and its effects on the dynamics of interspecies contact zones

We investigated the ecology and interspecific interactions of the two gibbon species (Hylobates lar and H. pileatus) that overlap in distribution within a narrow zone of contact in the headwaters of the Takhong River at Khao Yai National Park in central Thailand. The zone is about 10-km wide, with phenotypic hybrids comprising 6.5% of the adult population. We compared species with respect to diet, territory size, intra- and interspecific group encounters, and territory quality. The two gibbon species exploited the same types of resources within their territories despite variation in the relative abundance of food-plant species between territories. The gibbons were interspecifically territorial, and males of both species displayed aggressive behaviors at both intraspecific and interspecific territorial boundaries. There was no marked difference in the amount of overlap between territories of conspecific and heterospecific pairs of groups. Although the habitat was not homogeneous, territory quality did not vary significantly between species. The species have not diverged in habitat preference or in diet. Neither species dominated in interspecific encounters, and both were reproducing well in the contact zone. We analyzed the potential consequences of several types of interspecific interactions on individual dispersal options and on the structure of the contact zone. Interference competition through interspecific territoriality affects the dispersal of individuals into the range of the other species. In general, territorial competition coupled with limited hybridization leads to predictions of a narrow contact zone or parapatry between species; thus, behavioral and ecological interactions between species need to be considered as potential factors in explaining range borders of primate species.     

Variation of territory size and defense behavior in breeding pairs of the endemic Lake Tanganyika cichlid fish Variabilichromis moorii

Lake Tanganyika harbors the ecologically, morphologically, and behaviorally most diverse species flock of cichlid fishes. It is comprised by substrate breeding and mouthbrooding species, most of which live in littoral habitats. Species communities are characterized by complex behavioral and trophic interactions, resulting in a dense pattern of partially overlapping territories, depending on the degree of ecological distinctness. We studied territorial behavior of breeding pairs in a substrate breeding species, with respect to territory size and defense behavior. The study species Variabilichromis moorii belongs to the tribe Lamprologini, the most species rich tribe of cichlids in Lake Tanganyika. Our study shows that breeding pairs of V. moorii can have highly complex territories, in which both parents hold separate sub-territories which are shifted slightly according to the movements of the fry, but the outer borders are conjointly defended. The size of the total defended territory varied from <1 to almost 4 m², averaging at about 2 m². Depending on presence of competitors or fry-predators evoking agonistic interactions, the territory size varied quite substantially over the day. Attack rates and size of the defended area decreased with water depth. Agonistic behavior was observed toward heterospecifics as well as conspecifics, with heterospecific attacks mostly concerning territorial neighbors and potential fry-predators in about equal frequencies. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Guest editors: T. Wilke, R. V?in?l? & F. Riedel Patterns and Processes of Speciation in Ancient Lakes: Proceedings of the Fourth Symposium on Speciation in Ancient Lakes, Berlin, Germany, September 4–8, 2006     

Species-Specific Population Structure in Rock-Specialized Sympatric Cichlid Species in Lake Tanganyika,East Africa

Species richness and geographical phenotypic variation in East African lacustrine cichlids are often correlated with ecological specializations and limited dispersal. This study compares mitochondrial and microsatellite genetic diversity and structure among three sympatric rock-dwelling cichlids of Lake Tanganyika, Eretmodus cyanostictus, Tropheus moorii, and Ophthalmotilapia ventralis. The species represent three endemic, phylogenetically distinct tribes (Eretmodini, Tropheini, and Ectodini), and display divergent ecomorphological and behavioral specialization. Sample locations span both continuous, rocky shoreline and a potential dispersal barrier in the form of a muddy bay. High genetic diversity and population differentiation were detected in T. moorii and E. cyanostictus, whereas much lower variation and structure were found in O. ventralis. In particular, while a 7-km-wide muddy bay curtails dispersal in all three species to a similar extent, gene flow along mostly continuous habitat appeared to be controlled by distance in E. cyanostictus, further restricted by site philopatry and/or minor habitat discontinuities in T. moorii, and unrestrained in O. ventralis. In contrast to the general pattern of high gene flow along continuous shorelines in rock-dwelling cichlids of Lake Malawi, our study identifies differences in population structure among stenotopic Lake Tanganyika species. The amount of genetic differentiation among populations was not related to the degree of geographical variation of body color, especially since more phenotypic variation is observed in O. ventralis than in the genetically highly structured E. cyanostictus. [Reviewing Editor: Dr. Rafael Zardoya]     

Mating systems of two midwater-spawning cichlids,Cyprichromis microlepidotus andParacyprichromis brieni,in Lake Tanganyika

The breeding habits of 2 maternal mouthbrooding cichlids,Cyprichromis microlepidotus andParacyprichromis brieni, were investigated in Lake Tanganyika. Although spawning on the substrate in the male's mating territory is prevalent in maternal mouthbrooders, bothC. microlepidotus andP. brieni spawned in the water column. MaleC. microlepidotus established their mating territories in the open water column, while maleP. brieni did so around fixed spawning sites near a vertical rock surface. In both species, females visited male mating territories, departing soon after spawning and collecting the eggs. Sneaking, which was observed only inP. brieni, may be attributed to the presence of refuges for sneakers in this species. FemaleC. microlepidotus deposited their entire clutch of about 9 eggs in one male territory. In contrast, femaleP. brieni divided their clutch of about 11 eggs among several males. After the final egg-release, femaleC. microlepidotus repeatedly approached their mate, with the mouth near the abdomen of the latter (nuzzling), but femaleP. brieni often departed without nuzzling. Males may eject sperm during nuzzling to fertilize eggs inside the female's mouth. However, maleP. brieni is also known to eject sperm near spawning females when the females are not nuzzling. Such behavior seems to be a male countermeasure against female mate infidelity, because males could not ensure paternity of eggs by ejecting sperm only during female nuzzling.     

Interspecific relationships of aufwuchs-eating fishes in Lake Tanganyika

Synopsis On a rocky shore of Lake Tanganyika aufwuchs-eating is practiced by 18 fish species: 17 cichlids and 1 cyprinid. The majority takes mostly either filamentous or unicellular algae.Tropheus moorei and its taxonomically related species most closely resemble one another in diet among the species taking mostly filamentous algae, and thePetrochromis species do so among the species taking mostly unicellular algae.Petrochromis polyodon andT. moorei severely interfere with the feeding activities of related species. These two dominant species share both intensive grazing sites and temporal grazing patterns, and there seems to be a symbiotic relationship between them. Symbiotic relationships are also seen in seven cases of associated feeding by carnivorous fishes. Differences in diet or feeding behavior are found between these symbionts. Small but clear differences are found betweenP. polyodon andT. moorei and between the associating and the carnivorous host fishes in the four cases of associated feeding. These small differences seem attributable to morphological differences and may have been effective for the evolution of symbiotic relationships.Contribution from the Laboratory of Animal Ecology, Kyoto University, No. 461.     

Competitive abilities of oystercatchers ( Haematopus ostralegus ) occupying territories of different quality

In territorial species, habitat heterogeneity results in some individuals occupying poor quality sites while others occupy high quality sites. Floaters (mature nonbreeders) may accept a low quality territory, because it is the best they can get and defend (‘inferior phenotype hypothesis’), or because it is a strategic alternative for a high quality territory in the long run (‘queue hypothesis’). Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus territories differ consistently in the amount of offspring produced each year and this is related to the distance between the nesting and feeding territories. The inferior phenotype hypothesis was previously rejected on the basis of the absence of morphometric differences (assumed to indicate competitive abilities) among breeders. We investigated social dominance, in the field and in captivity, in relation to the quality of the breeding territory. In the field, birds with high-quality territories won more often compared to those occupying low-quality territories. However, this difference was not apparent in a small dataset of captive birds. These results are discussed in the framework of the long-term fitness prospects of settling in a high or low quality territory.     

Complete Mitochondrial DNA Sequences of the Threadfin Cichlid (Petrochromis trewavasae) and the Blunthead Cichlid (Tropheus moorii) and Patterns of Mitochondrial Genome Evolution in Cichlid Fishes

The cichlid fishes of the East African Great Lakes represent a model especially suited to study adaptive radiation and speciation. With several African cichlid genome projects being in progress, a promising set of closely related genomes is emerging, which is expected to serve as a valuable data base to solve questions on genotype-phenotype relations. The mitochondrial (mt) genomes presented here are the first results of the assembly and annotation process for two closely related but eco-morphologically highly distinct Lake Tanganyika cichlids, Petrochromis trewavasae and Tropheus moorii. The genomic sequences comprise 16,588 bp (P. trewavasae) and 16,590 bp (T. moorii), and exhibit the typical mitochondrial structure, with 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes, 22 tRNA genes, and a non-coding control region. Analyses confirmed that the two species are very closely related with an overall sequence similarity of 96%. We analyzed the newly generated sequences in the phylogenetic context of 21 published labroid fish mitochondrial genomes. Consistent with other vertebrates, the D-loop region was found to evolve faster than protein-coding genes, which in turn are followed by the rRNAs; the tRNAs vary greatly in the rate of sequence evolution, but on average evolve the slowest. Within the group of coding genes, ND6 evolves most rapidly. Codon usage is similar among examined cichlid tribes and labroid families; although a slight shift in usage patterns down the gene tree could be observed. Despite having a clearly different nucleotide composition, ND6 showed a similar codon usage. C-terminal ends of Cox1 exhibit variations, where the varying number of amino acids is related to the structure of the obtained phylogenetic tree. This variation may be of functional relevance for Cox1 synthesis.     

Overlapping territories ofPseudosimochromis curvifrons males and other herbivorous cichlid fishes in Lake Tanganyika

Males of the herbivorous cichlid fishPseudosimochromis curvifrons established mating territories 3–10 m in diameter, which included both spawning and feeding sites. Territorial males attacked conspecific males and also other species. Only conspecific males were chased out of the territories. Territorial males attacked other species at the spawning sites while courting or waiting for females and at other sites in their territories while patrolling and foraging. Attacks against herbivorous species were more frequent than against non-herbivores since herbivores were much more abundant. Territories of four abundant herbivorous cichlids largely overlapped the territories ofP. curvifrons males. Symbiotic relationships were not detected between the species. Instead, they were aggressive towards each other but coexisted by segregating feeding sites in the overlapping areas. The aggressive coexistence ofP. curvifrons males with other herbivores may have resulted from the energetic costs of defending their relatively large territories against all food competitors. Interspecific food-resource partitioning may also have facilitated the coexistence.     

THE ORIGINS OF ADAPTIVE INTERSPECIFIC TERRITORIALISM

1. In order to understand fully the evolution of a behavioural trait one must not only consider whether it is adaptive in its present environment but also whether it originated as an adaptation to existing selective forces or as a fortuitous consequence of selection for a different role in other environments (i.e., as a pre-adaptation) or of selection for different traits (e.g., as a pleiotropic effect). In this paper interspecific territorialism is examined in species of humming-birds, sun-birds, tropical reef fishes, stingless bees, stomatopods, crayfish, and limpets as a means of determining its adaptiveness and its origins. 2. Humming-birds form complex assemblages with species sorted out among the available resources. Dominant species establish feeding territories where flowers provide sufficient nectar. A few large, dominant species, usually uncommon, are marauders on others' territories. Subordinate species establish territories where flowers are more dispersed or produce less nectar, or they fly a circuit from nectar source to nectar source when flowers are even more dispersed, a foraging pattern called ‘traplining’, or they steal nectar from the territorial species by being inconspicuous while foraging. Two species, Amazilia saucerottei and Selasphorus sasin, subordinate in one-to-one encounters, are able to take over rich resources by establishing several small territories within a territory of a dominant and forcing it to forage elsewhere. 3. Among humming-birds, territorial individuals attacked not only subordinate competitors but marauding humming-birds and some insects, which stayed in the territory and foraged at will, and seemingly inappropriate targets, such as non-competitors. This suggests that the stimulus for aggression is ‘any flying organism near the food resources’, regardless of its appearance. The behaviour rather than the identity of the intruder is the stimulus. 4. Sun-birds resemble humming-birds to the extent that dominants establish territories on rich nectar sources and subordinates establish territories on less rich nectar sources or steal from the territories of dominants. The diversity of foraging patterns is not so great as in humming-birds, perhaps because so few species of sun-birds have been studied. However, the advantage of territorialism has been measured in the sun-bird Nectarinia reichenowi. Individuals with territories lose much less nectar to competitors than do those without territories. 5. Field work on three species of tropical reef fishes involved a single aggressive species whose individuals attacked a wide range of species intruding on their territories. The stimulus for aggression in Pomacentrus jenkinsi seemed to be an “object moving through [its] territory”. As suggested for humming-birds, the stimulus is the behaviour rather than the identity of the intruder. 6. The relationships found in stingless bees, stomatopods, crayfish, and limpets are simpler. The dominant and subordinate species divide the resources in their habitat, the dominants' aggression preventing the subordinates from using resources that were otherwise available to them. 7. A general pattern emerges. Mutual interspecific territorialism occurs between species that (i) have different geographic ranges, (ii) occupy different habitats, or (iii) use different resources within the same habitat. Examples of two species holding separate territories on the same resources within the same habitat are rare and occur when the dominant species is rare relative to the available resources. These observations are contrary to the usual view that interspecific territorialism is an adaptation that permits co-existence of potential competitors within the same habitat. 8. Interspecific territorialism is sometimes adaptive and sometimes maladaptive, depending upon the species and the situation. 9. The general pattern of occurrence of the behaviour and the general nature of the stimulus for aggression, i.e., the behaviour rather than the identity of the intruder, suggest that interspecific territoriality is a fortuitous consequence of selection for intraspecific territorialism, the latter being not only an adaptation to the presence of conspecific competitors but a pre-adaptation to the presence of competitors of other species, should they occur.     

Assortative aggression among males in a sympatric pair of Labeotropheus from Lake Malaŵi,Africa

Female mate choice has strong experimental support as a diversifying force in the speciation of the haplochromine cichlid fishes of Lake Malaŵi, Africa. Somewhat less understood is the role that male–male aggression might have played in the evolution of new species of these fishes. In the rock-dwelling haplochromines of Lake Malaŵi, primarily territory-holding males successfully court females; by determining which males gain territories, male–male aggression could support speciation by excluding less-fit males from the breeding population. To test the hypothesis that males should direct more aggression towards conspecific rivals, the aggression directed towards conspecific and heterospecific opponents was compared in a sympatric pair of cichlids of the genus Labeotropheus Ahl 1927 (Labeotropheus fuelleborni Ahl 1927 and Labeotropheus trewavasae Fryer 1956). It was found that when presented with a pair of rivals, males of both species did direct more aggression towards the conspecific opponent, and the amount of aggression increased when the conspecific opponent was larger than the heterospecific opponent. In addition, this study found a difference in the behavioural repertoire of the species: L. fuelleborni tends to rely on displays to intimidate opponents, whereas L. trewavasae employs more physical attacks to drive away opponents. Males of both species can thus recognize conspecifics and assess an opponent's relative threat to their ability to successfully reproduce, and use species-specific strategies to intimidate opponents.     

Feeding schools among Lake Malawi cichlid fishes

Synopsis Seven species of rock-frequenting cichlids, endemic to Lake Malawi, formed feeding-schools. Petrotilapia genalutea was the nuclear species comprising 92% of the school members (n = 2690 individuals from 50 schools). Fifty-eight per cent of all schools encountered consisted only of P. genalutea. School size ranged from 10 to 300 members (x = 81 ± 74 SD, median = 62). Schooling behaviour was facultative. Ninety-seven per cent of the feeding sites used by the schools occurred within the territories of highly aggressive, territorial species. These sites support considerably greater standing crops of algae, the food of the schooling species, than undefended sites. Individuals of schooling species were unable to gain access to the aggresively defended areas unless they joined schools.     

Components of breeding performance in two competing species: habitat heterogeneity, individual quality and density-dependence

Density‐dependent breeding performance due to habitat heterogeneity has been shown to regulate populations of territorial species, since the progressive occupation of low quality territories as breeding density increases may cause a decline in the mean per capita fecundity of a population while variation in fecundity increases. Although the preemptive use of sites may relegate low quality individuals to sites of progressively lower suitability, few studies on density dependence have tried to separate the effects of territory quality from individual quality, and none have simultaneously considered the effects of heterospecific competitors. Using two long‐term monitored populations, we assessed the relative contribution of habitat heterogeneity and bird quality (in terms of age) on the productivity of sympatric golden Aquila chrysaetos and Bonelli's eagles Hieraaetus fasciatus under different scenarios of intra‐ and inter‐specific competition. Productivity (number of offspring fledged) varied among territories and average annual productivity was negatively related to its variability in both species and populations, thus giving some support to the habitat heterogeneity hypothesis. However, the effect of habitat heterogeneity on productivity became non‐significant when parental age and local density estimators were included in multivariate analyses. Therefore, temporal changes in bird quality (age) combined with intra‐ and interspecific competition explained variability in territory productivity rather than habitat heterogeneity among territories per se. The recruitment of subadult breeders, a surrogate of mortality in eagles, strongly varied among territories. Habitat heterogeneity in productivity may thus arise not because sites differ in suitability for reproduction but because of differences in factors affecting survival. Territories associated with high mortality risks have a higher probability of being occupied by young birds, whose lower quality, interacting with the density competitors, leads to a reduction of productivity. Site‐dependent variability in adult survival and interspecific competition may be extensive, but so far largely overlooked, factors to be seriously considered for the site‐dependent population regulation framework.     

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The cichlid fishes of Lake Malawi represent a prime example of a rapid evolutionary radiation via sexual selection. We show that in this group, acoustic communication significantly coincides with visual courtship displays. Specifically, individuals tend to use both multimodal and unimodal displays in successive courtship bouts. Behavioral analyses on six species of Malawian cichlids from two divergent genera revealed that five of the species use displays containing both an auditory and a visual component. Metriaclima zebra “katale” was the notable exception, along with a single individual of Metriaclima lombardoi, which utilized unimodal and multimodal displays with equal frequency. Taken together, these results highlight the importance of behavioral lability in multiple sensory signals at both the intra- and interspecific levels.     

Depth-related differences in territory size and defense in the herbivorous cichlid,neolamprologus moorii, in lake tanganyika

Neolamprologus moorii, a small herbivorous cichlid of Lake Tanganyika, defends its territory against food competitors. Territory size and territorial defense were compared between two sites at different depths. In the shallow site, more fishes intruded into the territories than in the deep site, owing to the higher density fish population in the former. The territory holders in the shallow site attacked intruders more often, although the ratio of attacks to number of intruders was similar to that of the deep site. The territories in the deep site were larger and contained a greater amount of algae than the shallow site. The larger territory size in the deep site may have resulted from the lower cost of territory defense due to the lower competitor density and from the need to maintain a greater amount of food resources to compensate for lower algal productivity.     

Feeding selectivity in relation to territory size in a herbivorous reef fish

Summary Territory size in the herbivorous reef fish, Parma victoriae, (Pisces: Pomacentridae) is primarily determined by local density patterns and is independent of changes in food levels (Norman and Jones 1984). However, while individual readily expand territories in response to having their neighbours removed, they appear not to increase total food consumption. Individuals with large territories may benefit from improved food quality. Here we test the hypothesis that expanded territories increase access to preferred food types.A preliminary comparison of the relative proportions of algal species consumed and those present in the field indicated that feeding was highly selective. Strong feeding preferences were indicated by a field cafeteria experiment, in which algal species were presented to individuals in equal amounts. Selectivity indices calculated from diet and availability measures were positively correlated with the feeding preference rankings.Individuals examined from two territory size categories (<10 m² and > 10 m²) did not exhibit significant differences in feeding prefernces. However, they differed greatly in terms of the makeup of their diets. Higher ranking algae such as Champia zostricola and Rhodoglossum sp. were consumed in greater proportions on large territories. Algal abundances within territories also differed for the two groups. Some of the less abundant, high ranking food species were found in greater quantities per unit area on large territories. The differences in diet were not solely explained by changes in availability. The appropriate comparison showed that whereas individuals on large territories fed in a highly selective manner, those on small territories consumed algae in proportion to their availability. A neighbour removal experiment supported the hypothesis that territory expansion results in an increase in the consumption of preferred algal species.     

Spawning dynamics of orange roughy,Hoplostethus atlanticus,in mid-slope waters of New Zealand

Synopsis The social and reproductive biology of the sand tilefish,Malacanthus plumieri (Malacanthidae), was studied at Glover's Reef, Belize, where this species occurs in colonies over sand-rubble flats. Individuals each occupy a home burrow refuge and a surrounding home range. Home range overlap among adjacent fish of the same sex is low, and individuals defend exclusive use of much of their home range against all conspecifics except mates (i.e., territoriality). Areas defended by males overlap the territories of up to 6 females; and male territory area is positively related to the number of female residents. Males maintain dominance over females within their territories by aggression, including intervention into some female disputes. Females spawn pelagically-dispersed eggs as frequently as every day. Each female spawns near her burrow, almost exclusively with the male whose defended area encompasses her territory (harem polygyny). Tilefish colonies therefore consist of a mosaic of female territories over which adjacent male territories are superimposed. Histological evidence and observation of behavioral sex change in one female revealed thatM. plumieri is capable of protogynous sex reversal. Females did not change sex in response to removal of one male. Occurrence of small transitional fish indicates that the onset of sex change is controlled by factors other than size-related social hierarchies within harems or colonies.     

Dominance hierarchies in group-living cleaning gobies: causes and foraging consequences

In species living in social groups, aggression among individuals to gain access to limiting resources can lead to the formation of stable social hierarchies. We tested whether dominance rank in social groups of sponge-dwelling cleaning gobies Elacatinus prochilos in Barbados was determined by physical attributes of individuals or by prior experience of dominance, and examined the foraging consequences of dominance rank. Intraspecific aggression within groups resulted in stable dominance hierarchies that were strongly correlated with fish length. Dominant individuals maintained exclusive territories while subordinate fish occupied broader home ranges. Larger, competitively dominant fish were able to monopolize areas inside the sponge lumen with the highest abundance of the polychaete Haplosyllis spp., a favoured prey item, and achieved the highest foraging rates. The removal of a territorial individual from large groups resulted in a domino-like effect in territory relocation of the remaining fish as individuals moved to the territory previously occupied by the individual just above them in the group hierarchy. Individuals added to existing groups generally failed to gain access to territories, despite being formerly dominant in their original groups. When given the opportunity to choose a location in the absence of larger competitors, gobies frequently preferred positions that were previously defended and that had abundant food. These results suggest that intraspecific competition for resources creates the observed dominance structures and provides support for the role of individual physical attributes in the formation and maintenance of dominance hierarchies.