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1.
In Europe and North America the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis, is an important pest in various greenhouse crops, such as sweet pepper and cucumber. Two species of predatory mite are commercially
applied for biological control of this pest: Amblyseius cucumeris and A. barkeri. Thrips control is generally successful from March onwards. During winter, however, thrips control by these predatory mites
is less effective. An important reason for this is that the commercially applied strains of both mite species enter reproductive
diapause under short-day photoperiods, whereas the western flower thrips does not enter diapause. In this paper we report
on selection experiments for non-diapause in strains of both mite species, aimed at obtaining predators that do not enter
diapause under light- and temperature conditions prevailing in winter. Additional experiments were done to estimate the potential
of the selected lines as control agents of F. occidentalis. Selection for non-diapause proved highly successful in both predatory mite species. In a New Zealand strain of A. cucumeris diapause incidence decreased from 41% to 0% in about ten generations; in a Dutch strain of A. barkeri diapause incidence decreased from 67% to 0% in about six generations. Furthermore, selection for non-diapause had no influence
on predator performance, measured as predation rate and oviposition rate on a diet of first instar thirps larvae. Rates of
predation and oviposition were the same for selected and unselected lines in both species; rates of predation and oviposition
were higher for A. cucumeris than for A. barkeri. After 18 months under non-diapause conditions, no less than 92% of a sample of the selected non-diapause line of A. cucumeris did not enter diapause when tested under diapause-inducing conditions. This indicates that ‘non-diapause’ is a stable trait
in these predatory mites. Finally, a small-scale greenhouse experiment in a sweet pepper crop showed that the selected non-diapause
line of A. cucumeris established successfully under diapause-inducing short-day conditions. 相似文献
2.
Extrinsic control of developmental diapause in nymphs of prostriate ticks of the subgenus Ixodes sensu stricto ( Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus from Eurasia and Ixodes scapularis from North America) appears to be based on a complex two-step photoperiodic reaction of a short-day/long-day type. Diapause
control in the subgenus Afrixodes (the South African tick Ixodes rubicundus) appears to be based on a simple long-day reaction. The option between non-diapause development and diapausing arrest in
engorged nymphs is determined by both pre- and post-feeding photoperiodic regimes. Consequently diapausing arrest in engorged
nymphs of Ixodes sensu stricto can be induced either by a short-day (after their engorgement) or by a long-day regime (in unfed nymphs), while active, non-diapause
development is possible only when the short-day pre-feeding regime is followed by a long-day post-feeding regime. The photoperiodic
response in I. ( Afrixodes) rubicundus nymphs seems to be of the long-day type both before and after feeding. Consequently this non-diapause development is enabled
by a long-day regime, while diapause is induced by a short-day regime of exposure. Nevertheless, there are some indications
that the control of nymphal diapause in the latter species is also of a complex nature.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
3.
Using a Y-tube olfactometer, a study has been made of the response of females of the predatory mite Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) to volatile kairomones of three prey species: the European red spider mite ( Panonychus ulmi (Koch)), the two-spotted spider mite ( Tetranychus urticae Koch) and the apple rust mite ( Aculus schlechtendali (Nalepa)).Predators that had been reared on T. urticae responded only to the volatile kairomone of P. ulmi. In contrast, when reared on Vicia faba L. pollen, they responded to the kairomones of all three prey species. Pollen-reared predators, offered a choice between kairomones of two different prey species, prefer the P. ulmi kairomone to those of A. schlechtendali or T. urticae.The difference in response between predators reared on V. faba pollen and T. urticae seems to be caused by the low carotenoid content of V. faba pollen. Predators that had been reared on V. faba pollen mixed with crystalline -carotene behaved in a way similar to conspecific that had been reared on the carotenoid-rich prey mite T. urticae. Obviously, pollen-reared T. pyri females are in need of carotenoids, which can be obtained from, e.g., P. ulmi, T. urticae or A. schlechtendali. This may explain why pollen-reared predators respond to more prey species than T. urticae-reared predators.Why T. pyri females need carotenoids has not been established. The only known function of carotenoids in mites is involvement in diapause induction. However, as pollen-reared T. pyri enter reproductive diapause under short-day conditions, they either extract sufficient amounts of carotenoids from V. faba pollen, or do not need carotenoids for diapause induction.Apart from the effect of dietary requirements on prey selection, food deprivation also affects the predator's response to kairomones. All the data mentioned above have been obtained for predators that had been starved for 20 h. Predators that had been reared on T. urticae and starved for 48 h before the experiment did respond to the volatile kairomone of T. urticae in contrast to predators from the same culture that had been starved for 20 h. Thus foraging decisions by T. pyri are affected by both starvation time and specific hunger for carotenoids. 相似文献
4.
ABSTRACT. Photoperiodic control of facultative reproductive diapause was examined in females of the phytoseiid mite, Amblyseius potentillae (Garman). Full diapause was induced by rearing the mites from egg to adult under short-day photoperiods. Egg-laying females, however, which had experienced a long-day photoperiodic regime during pre-imaginal development, could still be induced to enter diapause when they were transferred to a short-day regime. Diapause development proceeded slowly under a short-day photoperiod, but was accelerated under long days. During diapause development under short days the photoperiodic sensitivity of the females diminished gradually and ultimately disappeared completely. However, after completion of diapause, sensitivity to photo-period reappeared. A second diapause could be induced in post-diapause females under short-day photoperiods and completed again under long-day photoperiods. These results show that A. potentillae remains sensitive to diapause-inducing and diapause-averting daylengths during the adult stage and that a second diapause may be induced after completion of the first one. 相似文献
5.
In spring and summer, two groups of natural enemies are successfully used for biological control of western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) in greenhouses: phytoseiid mites ( Amblyseius cucumeris (Oudemans) and, to a lesser extent, A. barkeri (Hughes)) and anthocorid bugs ( Orius spp.). During winter, however, these predators often fail to control the pest. One likely cause for failure is the predators'
tendency to enter diapause under short day conditions. In addition, eggs of predatory mites are generally susceptible to low
humidity conditions, which often arise in greenhouses when outside temperatures drop below zero, or at bright, hot days in
summer. In search for a thrips predator that is not hampered by these conditions, five subtropical phytoseiid species were
selected which were known to feed on thrips: A. hibisci (Chant), A. degenerans Berlese, A. limonicus s.s. Garman and McGregor, A. scutalis (Athias-Henriot) and A. tularensis (Congdon). These species were compared to A. cucumeris and A. barkeri, with respect to the following features: (1) predation and oviposition rate with young F. occidentalis larvae as prey, (2) oviposition rate on a diet of sweet pepper pollen, (3) drought tolerance spectrum of eggs, and (4) incidence
of reproductive diapause under short day conditions. The results showed that A. limonicus exhibited the highest predation and oviposition rates on a diet of thrips larvae. Moreover, A. limonicus females showed total absence of diapause under the conditions tested. A major disadvantage of this species was, however,
that its eggs were most sensitive to low air humidity conditions. Least sensitive to low air humidity were eggs of A. degenerans and A. hibisci. Females of A. degenerans and A. hibisci also showed total absence of diapause, and intermediate rates of predation and oviposition, on both thrips larvae and pollen.
In conclusion, we argue that A. degenerans and A. hibisci are the most promising candidates for biological control of F. occidentalis under conditions of low humidity and short day length. The success of these candidates remains to be shown in greenhouse
experiments. 相似文献
6.
Adults of the cabbage beetle Colaphellus bowringi display a summer diapause in response to the exposure of their larvae to long photoperiods. In the present study, the inheritance of the photoperiodic response controlling summer diapause in C. bowringi by crossing a high diapause strain (D strain) with a laboratory selected nondiapause strain (N strain) was investigated under different photoperiods at 22, 25 and 28 °C. The beetles in both reciprocal crosses and backcrosses showed a clear short-day response for the induction of diapause at all temperatures, similar to that of the D strain, suggesting that photoperiodic response of this beetle is heritable. The diapause incidences in the progeny from all the crosses under LD 15:9 or LD 12:12 at 25 °C suggest that genetic and genetic-environmental interactions are involved in diapause induction. The incidence of diapauses in F 1 progeny was significantly lower than that in the D × D strain but significantly higher than that in the N × N strain, indicating that the diapause capability is inherited in an incomplete dominant manner. The incidence of diapause was greater among the offspring of hybrid females when those females had a D strain mother or grandmother rather than a N strain mother or grandmother, indicating that maternal effects on diapause induction are stronger than paternal effects. The laboratory selected nondiapause strain also showed a short-day photoperiodic response at a low temperature of 22 °C, indicating that the photoperiodic photoreceptor and photoperiodic clock still function in the nondiapause strain. 相似文献
7.
Zoophytophagous plant bugs (Heteroptera, Miridae) increasingly attract interest as agents of biological plant protection. In the laboratory experiment, the effects of the day length and temperature on the duration of the pre-adult period and on induction of facultative winter adult diapause were studied in Dicyphus errans (Wolff, 1804) collected in Italy. The experiment demonstrated that at 20°C the duration of the pre-adult period of D. errans significantly depended on the day length. On average, females developed 1.3 days longer than males and, at the same time, the day length equally influenced the duration of the pre-adult period in both sexes. The pre-adult period was the shortest under short-day conditions (10 to 12 h of light per day), reached its maximum at day length of 14 h, but then decreased at 15 h, and at day length of 16 h it was as short as under short-day conditions. Also, a pronounced long-day type photoperiodic response of adult diapause induction was recorded in females of D. errans at 20°C: under short-day conditions (10 to 14 h of light per day) almost all females entered diapause, whereas under long-day conditions (15 and 16 h of light per day) about 90% of females were mature. The threshold of this photoperiodic response was close to 14 h 30 min. The mean (± S.D.) egg load of mature females was 6.3 ± 4.0 eggs per female and did not depend on the day length at which the female was reared before and after the final molt. When photoperiodic response of adult diapause induction was observed at two constant temperatures (20 and 25°C), the proportion of mature females depended significantly on the day length but not on the temperature: the shapes of the photoperiodic response curves of diapause induction were almost the same within the near-threshold zone at 20 and 25°C, i.e., the photoperiodic response was thermostable. The set of two photoperiodic responses manifested at different stages of the species’ life cycle has an obvious adaptive significance. In Central Europe, D. errans has 2 or 3 generations per year and hibernates at the adult stage. Due to the thermostable photoperiodic response, females enter diapause always at the same time at the end of summer, regardless of the weather conditions of a particular year. When oviposition and pre-adult development are extended over a prolonged period in summer, nymphs from the later eggs might not be able to molt to adults in due time and then fully prepare for stable winter diapause. Under such circumstances, the photoperiodic response controlling the rates of pre-adult development acquires apparent adaptive meaning: with an autumnal shortening of the day length to 10–12 h, even under conditions of seasonal decrease in temperature, the rates of nymphal development increase and, thus, the chances of nymphs from the later eggs to molt to adults and properly prepare for overwintering also increase. The new data should be taken into account when analyzing the seasonal cycle of D. errans and developing the programs of mass rearing of this zoophytophagous mirid as an agent of biological plant protection. 相似文献
8.
The predatory mite Amblyseius cucumeris (Oudemans) [ Acarina: Phytoseiidae] was evaluated as a biological control for Thrips tabaci Lindeman and Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) [ Thysanoptera: Thripidae] on greenhouse grown seedless cucumber. A. cucumeris spread throughout the greenhouses and provided control of both species of thrips. A. cucumeris adults persisted on plants for 7 weeks in the virtual absence of prey, and increased numerically in response to increases
in prey population. On the basis of these results A. cucumeris is recommended as a useful biological control for T. tabaci and F. occidentalis on greenhouse cucumber.
Publication No. 361, Agassiz Research Station, Agriculture Canada, Agassiz, B.C. Canada VOM 1AO. 相似文献
9.
We recently reported evidence for increased diapause incidence in the spider mite Tetranychus urticae in presence of the predatory mite Typhlodromus pyri. This effect may arise from (1) selective predation on non-diapause spider mites, (2) predator-induced diapause in spider mites, or (3) both. Using a different strain of T. urticae, we first recovered increased diapause incidence in association with predators. Then, we tested for selective feeding in two-choice experiments with equal numbers of non-diapause and diapause spider mites. We found that the predatory mite had a significant preference for the latter. This indicates that increased diapause incidence in association with predatory mites is not due to selective predation. Therefore, predator-mediated physiological induction of diapause seems a more likely explanation. The cues leading to induction appear to relate to the predators, not their effects, since predation simulated by spider-mite removal or puncturing did not significantly affect diapause incidence. Why spider mites benefit from this response, remains an open question.This revised version was published online in May 2005 with a corrected cover date. 相似文献
10.
In a vineyard having three varieties of grape (Merlot, Trebbiano and Garganega) differently colonized by two phytoseiid species, Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten and Amblyseius andersoni (Chant), the dynamics of mite populations were monitored over 5 years (1989–1993) in order to study their colonization, interspecific competition and the control of spider mites, i.e. Panonychus ulmi (Koch). These aspects were also investigated by releasing T. pyri, A. andersoni and Amblyseius aberrans (Oudemans) on some of the above varieties. In most of the experimental years (1989–1992), selective pesticides were used in order to allow a successful release of phytoseiids, in particular A. aberrans. The use of non-selective insecticides was re-established during 1993 in order to test its effect on the new mite communities originating from 1989 onwards. In the first years of the experiments an apparent relationship between grape variety and phytoseiid species was observed: in the control plots, A. andersoni occurred on Merlot where T. pyri was rare, while the latter species was largely dominant over A. andersoni on Trebbiano and Garganega. Panonychus ulmi populations reached moderate levels only on Merlot and in the first part of experiments. The variety-phytoseiid species relationship was temporary as, at the end of experiments, T. pyri was completely dominant on all varieties. This new situation started when prey occurrence and interspecific competition decreased in importance. The moderate success of the T. pyri release on Merlot contrasts with the results of previous experiments. Two factors could be involved in this phenomenon: low interspecific competition by phytoseiids and predation by macropredators. Amblyseius aberrans was able to displace A. andersoni and T. pyri on grape varieties where the two species were more abundant and reached higher population densities on varieties with pubescent leaf undersurfaces. In the first experimental year, spider mite densities were reduced more effectively in A. aberrans release plots than in the control or in T. pyri release plots. One year later, P. ulmi reached lower levels in the release treatments than in the control. Typhlodromus pyri and A. aberrans persisted in conditions of prey scarcity. The high competitivity of A. aberrans over the remaining two phytoseiid species constitutes a major factor in selecting predatory species for inoculative releases in vineyards. 相似文献
11.
Abstract Photoperiodic sensitivity for diapause induction of the green lacewing, Chrysoperla sinica (Tjeder) was examined at 22°C. The adult diapause of C. sinica was induced by short-day photoperiods, and the critical photoperiod for its induction was between 12.5L-11.5D and 13L-11D. Adults developed without diapause under long-day conditions, and entered diapause under short-day conditions. The adult stage was the uppermost sensitive stage for adult diapause induction, adults could go into diapause only when the emerging adults were under diapause-inducing short-day photoperiods. The short-day photoperiodic experience by transferring between 15L: 9D and 9L: 15D at preimaginal stages did not result in adult diapause under 15L: 9D photo regime, although some treatments extended the pre-oviposition period in adult stage. The results showed that the 3rd instar larvae and pre-pupae were more sensitive to the photoperiodic change from 15L: 9D to 9L: 15D photo regime than the other preimaginal stages. 相似文献
12.
Abstract. Eight strains of the spider mite Tetranychus urticae, originating from different localities in western and central Europe, with latitudes ranging from 40.5 to 60 oN, displayed marked differences in the period of chilling at 4 oC required for diapause termination under a diapause-maintaining short-day photoperiodic regime at 19 oC, to which the mites were transferred after the cold period. The higher the latitude from which the strains originated the longer was the period of chilling required for diapause termination, suggesting the presence of a gradient in diapause intensity, diapause being deeper the more northern the origin of the strains. Two strains originating from higher altitudes appeared to have a much deeper diapause than expected from their latitudinal origin. In addition, these two mountain strains showed mutual differences in diapause intensity, notwithstanding the fact that they originated from similar latitudes and altitudes; local climatic conditions probably act as strong selective forces with regard to diapause depth. All strains appeared to be sensitive to photoperiod during the period of diapause development. Diapause was quickly completed by a long-day photoperiod (LD 17:7 h), but was maintained by a short-day photoperiod (LD 10:14h). However, even under the latter regime sensitivity to photoperiod gradually diminished and eventually disappeared, thus leading to ‘spontaneous’ termination of diapause. The length of the period of diapause development, as measured by the sensitivity to photoperiod of diapausing mites, varied between strains; it was shorter in the southern strains and longer in the northern strains. The results indicate great variation in diapause intensity between strains, which is probably genetically determined and may have adaptive significance for this widespread species. When young females which had just entered diapause were kept for ever longer periods of time under the diapause inducing short-day regime at which they had been reared, before being transferred to the cold room, the duration of the period of chilling required for diapause termination was found to decrease proportionally in all three strains tested. These results suggest that intensification of diapause does not occur in T. urticae; diapause intensity seems to be highest at the beginning of diapause and to diminish gradually during diapause development. 相似文献
14.
Covering and surgical removal of the compound eyes were performed to localize photoreceptors for photoperiodic responses
in the blow fly Protophormia terraenovae (Diptera, Calliphoridae). Adult females showed a long-day photoperiodic response to control reproductive diapause. When the
compound eyes were bilaterally covered with silver paint, diapause incidence increased under diapause-preventing conditions,
i.e., a long-day photoperiod and constant light, as though flies were kept under constant darkness. Neither silver painting
on a medial region of the head capsule nor control painting in which both compound eyes were painted in a clear solvent caused
significant effects on diapause incidence. Unilateral painting of the compound eye caused an increment of diapause incidence
under constant light but no effects under a long-day photoperiod. When the compound eyes were bilaterally removed, all the
flies developed their ovaries both under a long-day and a short-day photoperiod. Unilateral removal of the compound eye also
caused ovarian development under a short-day photoperiod, whereas removal of one antennal lobe or all ocelli caused no effects
on diapause incidence. Since P. terraenovae completely lost responsiveness to photoperiod after blinding of the compound eyes, it is likely that this fly perceives photoperiod
through its compound eyes.
Accepted: 18 February 1997 相似文献
15.
Photoperiodic induction of reproductive diapause at 18°C was investigated in four Orius [Heteroptera: Anthocoridae] species. Orius insidiosus (Say) displayed a long-day response with a critical photoperiod between L11:D13 and L12:D12. Diapause in this species was
terminated rapidly when the temperature and/or the daylength were increased. Orius majusculus (Reuter) also displayed a long-day response. The critical photoperiod fell between L14:D10 and L16:D8. Diapause in this species
was not terminated within 14 days when both temperature and daylength were increased. In Orius albidipennis (Reuter) no diapause could be induced at photoperiods varying from L8:D16 to L16:D8. In Orius tristicolor (White) a high proportion of diapause was found at all photoperiods tested.
The effect of temperature on photoperiodic induction of diapause was studied in O. insidiosus at L10:D14. Diapause occurred at 18°C, 21°C and 25°C, but not at 30°C. Again, diapause was terminated rapidly after transfer
to 25°C/L16:D8. Exposing only the nymphal instars 1–5 to short daylength was not enough to induce diapause in the whole population
of O. majusculus. Orius predatory bugs are used as biocontrol agents against western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) [Thysanoptera: Thripidael, in greenhouses. The consequences of photoperiodic induction of diapause for the success
of early season releases of Orius are discussed. 相似文献
16.
In similar climatic conditions of central/northern Europe and Hokkaido, Japan, both subspecies of Coccinella septempunctata L. have similar life-cycles: long-day photoperiodic response ensures the induction of winter diapause. In the mild climate of Honshu, Japan, C. s. brucki Mulsant shows a different life cycle: short-day photoperiodic response leads to the induction of summer diapause while overwintering is quiescence. All populations show an important variation in photoperiodic response. 相似文献
17.
The band-legged ground cricket Pteronemobius nigrofasciatus shows a clear photoperiodic response at 25°C with respect to the control of the induction of embryonic diapause. When crickets were reared under a short-day (LD 12 12) photoperiod and then transferred to a long-day (LD 16 8) photoperiod upon adult emergence, the adults mainly laid nondiapause eggs. However, adults maintained continuously under short-day conditions laid dispause eggs. When compound eyes were bilaterally removed after adult emergence, the crickets mainly laid nondiapause eggs, irrespective of the photoperiod. Thus, the adults completely lost their sensitivity to photoperiod after bilateral removal of their compound eyes. Unilateral removal of the compound eye also affected the crickets under a short-day photoperiod, and the incidence of diapause eggs was intermediate between that laid by intact adults and that laid by adults after the bilateral removal of compound eyes. The incidence of diapause eggs in sham-operated crickets was not significantly different from that in intact crickets under both sets of photoperiodic conditions. These results show that P. nigrofasciatus perceives the photoperiod through its compound eyes. 相似文献
18.
The investigation of Neoseiulus cucumeris in the context of the ecological risk assessment of insect resistant transgenic plants is of particular interest as this
omnivorous predatory mite species is commercially available and considered important for biological control. In a multitrophic
feeding experiment we assessed the impact of Bt maize on the performance of N. cucumeris when offered spider mites ( Tetranychus urticae) reared on Bt (Bt11, Syngenta) or non-Bt maize (near isogenic line) and Bt or non-Bt maize pollen as a food source. Various
parameters including mortality, development time, oviposition rate were measured. Spider mites were used as a prey for N. cucumeris, since these herbivores are known to contain similar levels of Cry1Ab toxin, when reared on Bt maize, as those found in the
transgenic leaf material. In contrast, toxin levels in pollen of this transgenic cultivar are very low. No differences in
any of the parameters were found when N. cucumeris was fed with spider mites reared on Bt and non-Bt maize. Pollen was shown to be a less suitable food source for this predator
as compared to spider mites. Moreover, subtle effects on female N. cucumeris (9% longer development time and 17% reduced fecundity) were measured when fed with pollen originating from Bt maize as compared
to non-Bt maize pollen. Our findings indicate that the predatory mite N. cucumeris is not sensitive to the Cry1Ab toxin as no effects could be detected when offered Bt-containing spider mites, and that the
effects found when fed with Bt maize pollen can be assigned to differences in nutritional quality of Bt and non-Bt maize pollen.
The significance of these findings is discussed with regard to the ecological relevance for risk assessment of transgenic
plants. 相似文献
19.
A photoperiod of 8L/16D for two weeks was used to distinguish between diapausing and non-diapausing Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten. A diet of Panonychus ulmi or Tetranychus urticae, or pollen of Vicia faba did not influence preovipositional periods of diapausing mites. In mid-September, 88% of T. pyri collected from an insectary were in diapause. The critical day-length appeared to be between 12.5 and 13.5 h. Diapause duration was greatest in mites collected in September–November, becoming progressively less in mites collected later in the winter. By mid-April, ca. 50% of mites collected from the orchard and insectary oviposited promptly when cultured in the laboratory. Typhlodromus pyri eggs and larvae were present on leaves in early May. At this time, only 4% of P. ulmi winter eggs had hatched. Diapause terminated most quickly in T. pyri kept in an 18L/6D photoperiod, followed by 24L/0D and 0L/24D. Longest preoviposition periods were recorded for mites kept in 8L/16D photoperiods. 相似文献
20.
The predatory mite Neoseiulus cucumeris is used for biological control of phytophagous mites and thrips on greenhouse cucumber and sweet pepper. In a previous study,
N. cucumeris provided effective control of broad mite but was only rarely found on the sampled leaves, raising questions about the factors
affecting N. cucumeris distribution. To determine the distribution of N. cucumeris, leaves of pepper plants were sampled three times per day: just after sunrise, at noon and just before sunset for two years
and throughout a 24 h period in one year. The presence of other mites and insects was recorded. Biotic (pollen) and abiotic
(temperature, humidity) factors were monitored from the three plant levels. The effect of direct and indirect sunlight on
the mites was assessed. N. cucumeris was found primarily in flowers; however, the mite’s distribution was affected by other predators (intraguild predation);
in the presence of the predatory bug Orius laevigatus virtually no mites occurred in the flowers. Whereas temperature and humidity varied from the top to the lower level of the
plants, apparently neither these factors nor the presence of pollen outside the flowers influenced mite distribution. N. cucumeris was found to be negatively phototropic; therefore N. cucumeris were pre-conditioned to light by rearing under light conditions for 4 months before being released. The light-reared mites
were initially more numerous during the noon sampling period, however, rearing conditions caused only a temporary and non-significant
change in distribution. 相似文献
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