Ascaridoid parasites infecting in the frequently consumed marine fishes in the coastal area of China: A preliminary investigation

Marine fishes represent the important components of the diet in the coastal areas of China and they are also natural hosts of various parasites. However, to date, little is known about the occurrence of ascaridoid parasites in the frequently consumed marine fishes in China. In order to determine the presence of ascaridoid parasites in the frequently consumed marine fishes in the coastal town Huizhou, Guangdong Province, China, 211 fish representing 45 species caught from the South China Sea (off Daya Gulf) were examined. Five species of ascaridoid nematodes at different developmental stages were detected in the marine fishes examined herein, including third-stage larva of Anisakis typica (Diesing, 1860), third and fourth-stage larvae of Hysterothylacium sp. IV-A of Shamsi, Gasser & Beveridge, 2013, adult and third-stage larvae of Hysterothylacium zhoushanense Li, Liu & Zhang, 2014, adults and third-stage larvae of Raphidascaris lophii (Wu, 1949) and adults of Raphidascaris longispicula Li, Liu & Zhang, 2012. The overall prevalence of infection is 18.0%. Of them, Hysterothylacium sp. IV-A with the highest prevalence (17.5%) and intensity (mean = 14.6) of infection was the predominant species. The prevalence and intensity of A. typica were very low (1/211 of marine fish infected with an intensity of one parasite per fish). The morphological and molecular characterization of all nematode species was provided. A cladistic analysis based on ITS sequence was constructed in order to determine the phylogenetic relationships of these ascaridoid parasites obtained herein. The present study provided important information on the occurrence and diagnosis of ascaridoid nematodes in the commercially important marine fishes from the South China Sea. The low level of infection and the species composition of ascaridoid nematodes seem to indicate the presence of low risk of human anisakidosis when local population consumed these marine fishes examined herein.     

Control of foraging behavior of individuals within an ecosystem context: the clam Macoma balthica and interactions between competition and siphon cropping

Macoma balthica (L.) is a common clam of the estuarine seafloor, belonging to an important group of invertebrates possessing the capacity to choose between the two fundamental modes of feeding available, using its siphon to inhale either suspended food particles from the water or food particles deposited on the sediment surface. Field experiments demonstrate that intraspecific competition, effects of other competing benthic invertebrates, and complex interactions between competition and partial predation (siphon cropping by fishes) modify the foraging behavior of Macoma. When protected by caging from siphon nipping by fishes, Macoma demonstrated greater siphon regeneration at lower density, indicating the importance of competition for limited resources. In the absence of siphon croppers, these same clams also exhibited more deposit feeding at the lower density either because of improved ability to deposit-feed with longer siphons or because deposited foods become more rapidly depleted than suspended foods on local spatial scales. Addition of siphon-nipping fishes caused greater reductions in siphon size of clams at lower density, presumably because the intensity of nipping per clam was greater where clam targets were fewer and because deposit feeding, which was more intense at lower densities, confers a greater risk of cropping from greater siphon extension and activity than characterize suspension feeding. Deposit feeding by Macoma was reduced in the presence of siphon croppers at both high and low density of clams, but the intensity of deposit-feeding activity at low density was substantially higher than predicted by additive effects of clam density and cropping. This suggests operation of a balancing strategy in Macoma whereby it is accepting greater risks of partial predation when rewards of greater food harvest are larger. The surprising failure to adopt a risk-averse stratery may be explained by the non-lethal nature of partial predation, which renders siphon loss an energetic penalty replacable through regeneration. The presence of a bed of suspension-feeding Rangia cuneata also altered foraging behavior of Macoma by inducing a switch to more intense deposit feeding, in response either to the documented near-bottom depletion of suspended foods or to likely enhanced biodeposition from feces and pseudofeces. The induction of greater deposit feeding by the presence of this competing suspension feeder led to greater siphon losses during exposure to croppers because Macoma was practicing more risky feeding behavior. This enhanced loss of siphon tissues to croppers in the presence of the suspension-feeding Rangia induced an interaction between the effects of siphon croppers and Rangia, such that Macoma exhibited a larger switch away from deposit feeding in the presence of siphon croppers when Rangia were also present. Clearly, the foraging decisions made by individuals can only be understood in a broad holistic context of population, community, and ecosystem processes.     

An Evidence to Use Cotes/a plutellae (Kurdjumov) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) as a Field Control Agent against Diamondback Moth,Plutella xylostella L (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)

The parasitic effectiveness of Cotesia plutellae Kurdjumov for the control of diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella L., was investigated without spraying pesticides in the greenhouse, and the damage degrees of Brassica rapa cv. Pakchoi grown in parasitoid-applied plot and control plot were evaluated. Among the 961 fourth instar DBM larvae collected in the common cabbage fields at Kwanshan region in Taiwan, 336 cocoons of C. plutellae were harvested from DBM larvae, which showed a parasitism rate of 35.0%. A total of 650 DBM adults and 600 C. plutellae adults were released according to the releasing scheme in the experiment plot. As a result, 56.7% of the DBM larvae were parasitized by C. plutellae adults 12 days before harvest, and the parasitism reached 80.8% at six days before harvest. At the harvest time, a population density of C. plutellae cocoons in the experiment plot was 2.2/plant, and that of normal DBM larvae was 0.5/plant. The density of DBM in the control plot was much higher than in the parasitoid-released plot by 7.7/plant. In the first survey, the density of DBM larvae on a Pakchoi plant was quite low, 0.3 ∼ 0.8 larvae. However, the DBM population increased dramatically after six days later, 5.7-10.1 larvae/plant. The population density of DBM larvae showed clear difference between the parasitoid-released plot and control plot. The parasitism increased to nearly two fold within a week after the release of DBM adults. As a further study, a combining use of two or more species para-sitoids could be considered to improve a parasitism against DBM in the fields.     

Household-Level Expenditure on Protective Measures Against Mosquitoes on the Island of La Réunion,France

Background

For decades La Réunion has experienced a number of epidemics that have resulted in efforts to control the density of Aedes species on this Island. This study was conducted to assess household-level expenditure on protective measures against mosquito nuisance on the Island of La Réunion in 2012.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Data was collected during a cross-sectional survey of 1024 households and used to determine the relationship between the use of chemically-based protective measures and subjective and objective indicators of the density of Aedes albopictus. The average household expenditure in July 2012 was USD 9.86 and the total household-level expenditure over a one-year period was extrapolated to USD 28.05million (range: USD 25.58 million to USD 30.76 million). Much of this money was spent on measures thought to be relatively ineffective against Aedes mosquitoes. Expenditure on protective measures was not influenced by the level of knowledge on mosquitoes or by the visual nuisance they generated at home, but rather by the perception of risk related to a future epidemic of chikungunya and socioeconomic factors. Most importantly, household spending on protective measures was found to be influenced by a measure of zone-level mosquito density (the Breteau index), but not by objective indicators of the presence of mosquitoes within or around the house.

Conclusions/Significance

Household-level expenditure on chemically-based protective measures is high when compared to the investment made by public entities to achieve vector control, and it is differentially influenced by subjective and objective measures of mosquito density. The current situation could be improved, firstly by ensuring that the public is well-informed about mosquitoes and the effectiveness of various protective measures, and secondly by implementing interventions that could either complement current vector-control strategies and improve their effectiveness on a country-level, or that would steer the population toward the appropriate behaviours.     

Otolith microstructure and the demography of coral reef fishes

The ecology of planktonic larvae - particularly the extent to which larvae are transported between habitat patches - is a poorly known aspect of the life history of tropical reef-associated fishes. The logistic difficulties of studying larvae in the field and of relating their behavior in captivity to field conditions have greatly impeded the progress of research. However, a recently developed technique, based on analysis of the microstructural growth elements in otoliths ('ear stones'), may prove a powerful means of assessing the early life history of reef fishes and relating it to population and community dynamics.     

A Tipula paludosa population with a high incidence of two pathogens

The incidence of lethal parasites in the larvae of a Tipula paludosa population was monitored for two seasons. The proportions of larvae infected with Tipula iridescent virus (TIV) and a tachinid insect were similar to those in previously studied populations, whereas the proportions of larvae infected with Tipula nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) and a spore-forming bacterium (SFB) were higher. Conservative estimates of mortality due to these four agents were 10.7% in 1977–1978 and 7.7% in 1978–1979. The mean population density and the proportion of SFB-infected larvae were lower in 1978–1979 than in 1977–1978, while the proportion of NPV-infected larvae was higher. In 1979 the proportion of NPV-infected larvae was positively correlated with population density, which was highest in the wettest part of the study area. In both seasons the proportion of SFB-infected larvae was negatively correlated with population density. Larvae infected with the NPV or the SFB became pallid at an advanced stage of infection, but, although infected larvae were found throughout the larval period, pallid larvae were only found in the later part. It is suggested that larvae become infected in an early instar, then the infections slowly develop throughout the remainder of the larval period. Five larvae were found with mixed infections; four were infected with the SFB and NPV, while the fifth was infected with the SFB and TIV.     

Oviposition Behavior of the Predatory Midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza in Response to Aphid Patch Quality

Female Aphidoletes aphidimyza confronts serious challenges from both aphid prey and conspecifics. These challenges constitute strong selective pressures on the predatory midge to have an adaptive oviposition strategy. We did laboratory experiments to investigate clutch size of A. aphidimyza in response to the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (density and age) and the presence of conspecific eggs (density) and larvae (age) in aphid colonies. The results of our study show that A. aphidimyza female adjusts its foraging effort by assessing the quality of prey patches. The number of eggs laid increased in response to aphid density. However, patches consisting of older aphids received fewer eggs. The number of eggs laid decreased in response to the presence of conspecific eggs, and in response to the presence of 2-day old conspecific larvae. Our study reveals deterrent effects on A. aphidimyza oviposition decisions on clutch size in response to older aphids and the presence of more conspecific eggs and older larvae.     

The effect of food concentration and population density of mosquito larvae (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Anopheles stephensi</Emphasis>, Diptera,Culicidae) on their feeding behavior

The influence of food concentration and population density on the feeding behavior of Anopheles stephensi (Diptera, Culicidae) larvae has been shown experimentally. Lack of food resulted in larvae switching from sweeping the surface film to scraping the substrate off the bottom. The effect of the larval population density was more complex and depended on the food concentration. As a result, the ratio between the larvae keeping to the surface and to the bottom of the vessel was determined by interactions which led to their redistribution between the two trophic niches: the surface film and the bottom substrate. The traits observed ensure plasticity in the use of trophic resources within a water body.     

Influence of Predator Presence and Prey Density on Behavior and Growth of Damselfly Larvae (Ischnura elegans) (Odonata: Zygoptera)

Foraging behavior is often determined by the conflicting benefits of energy gain and the risk of mortality from predation or other causes. Theory predicts that animals should have lower activity levels when either the risk of predation or the availability of resources in the environment is high. We investigated the adjustment of the behavior of I. elegans larvae to predator presence (Anax imperator) and prey density (Daphnia sp.) and their interaction in a completely crossed factorial experiment in the lab and the effect of behavior on growth. The foraging activity of the I. elegans larvae was significantly reduced in the presence of a free-swimming predator but not a caged predator. Abdominal movements were significantly reduced at a low prey density. Growth was significantly reduced by the presence of a free swimming predator and low prey densities. These results provide evidence that these damselfly larvae adjust their behavior to the presence of predators to increase their survival at the expense of reduced growth and development.     

Some effects of density on the juveniles of two species of tropical,territorial damselfish

Small juveniles of Pomacentrus wardi Whitley and P. flavicauda Whitley were transplanted onto replicate reefs, at various densities, to assess the importance of intraspecific and interspecific competition among fishes of the same size, age, and experience. Although P. flavicauda disappeared from the reefs faster than did P. wardi, survival of neither species was affected by the density of conspecifics or the presence of its congener (during a 1-yr period). Thus densities at the end of the experiment reflected the initial stocking densities which simulated a range of recruitment densities exceeding those observed in wild populations. Crowding caused both species to change their intraspecific behaviours from territorialism to participation in dominance hierarchies. For P. wardi, this was correlated with unequal growth among the individuals on each patch, which partially disguised a trend for the average size of all fish to decrease with increasing density. Over the range of crowding and the time scales explored, total biomass ( = production) did not reach an asymptotic value which might have indicated an absolute shortage of food for these small fishes. Variations in the survival and biomass of P. wardi among replicate reefs were not correlated with the distribution and abundance of any other species also resident on these reefs. The highest densities of damselfishes used in this experiment were more than 50 times the average year-class strength observed at this site. Yet proportional losses from the experimental and natural cohorts were not distinguishable. The lack of compensatory mortality over this range of densities suggests that competition within a year-class does not control the density of young fish in wild populations. This result is consistent with other evidence that recruit densities are extrinsically controlled by a limiting supply of pelagic larvae.     

Experimental test of the influence of the size of shoals and density of fish on parasite infections

There is an increasing interest in the relationship between adult coral reef fishes and their parasites; however, there is almost no information concerning post larvae (i.e. newly recruited) fish and their parasites. Newly recruited and juvenile fish are highly sensitive to their environment and they have a very low survival rate. Fish grouping behavior has been studied in several ways and many studies have shown that increasing group size might be a way to share a cost linked to parasitism, via a dilution effect. To my knowledge, this hypothesis has never been tested for juveniles of fish. The potential influence of school size and density of a juvenile coral reef fish, Haemulon flavolineatum (Haemulidae), on the success of a monogenean fish parasite, Haliotrema sp., was studied. First, the fish acquired their monogeneans when they were more than 40 mm long, size corresponding also to a change in their foraging behavior. Second, there was a positive effect of fish density on the success of the establishment of the parasite on the host population. Finally, although the parasite success was not directly related to fish group size, the parasite abundance was higher for intermediate shoal size. These results are discussed in terms of the consequence parasitism may have on a fish's shoaling and to a larger extent on the fish population.     

Patch area of macrophyte Stratioites aloides as a critical resource for declining dragonfly Aeshna viridis

Currently, many rare and endangered species occur in fragmented habitats. Habitat patch size is often used as an easily measured surrogate of habitat quality and local population size. We investigated whether habitat patch size affects the presence and density of larvae of the endangered dragonfly Aeshna viridis, which for a large part of their life history depend on the macrophyte Stratiotes aloides rosette. The study was performed in four populations, two from Finland and two from Latvia. Our main result was that density of A. viridis and patch occupation increased with area of S. aloides patch. The results may be due to larvae actively avoiding enemies (higher survival) and/or to the possibility that females laid higher number of eggs in the large S. aloides patches. Our results indicate that local abundance and persistence of A. viridis population may depend on the few, large S. aloides patches rather than several small patches of equal total area.     

Influence of the chickpea cropping system onHelicoverpa armigera (Lep.: noctuidae) populations and their rate of parasitism byCampoletis chlorideae (Hym.: ichneumonidae)

The effect of intercropping chickpea with coriander or linseed onHelicoverpa armigera Hübner egg and larval populations and on the rate of larval parasitism was examined. There were significantly moreH. armigera larvae per plot in the sole chickpea treatment than in the intercropped treatments. The reduction was not the result of a negative effect of the companion crops on the numbers of larvae attacking chickpea. Larval density on chickpea was higher in the intercropped plots than the plots of sole chickpea. The presence of the flowering companion crops did not result in either the attraction of otherwise uncommon parasitoids to the crop or an increase in the proportion ofH. armigera larvae parasitized byCampoletis chlorideae Uchida. The results suggest that chickpea is a more suitable host forH. armigera than coriander or linseed, and that the reduction in the density ofH. armigera larvae in the intercroped treatments was due to the lower number of chickpea plants in these treatments.     

Photoperiod as Cues for Determining Optimal Foraging in Developmental Stages in Chitala chitala Hamilton, 1822

Photoperiod plays an important role in controlling the feeding rhythmicity of juvenile fishes. Studies on feeding and spatial distribution pattern were made on wild populations of different juvenile stages of Chitala chitala, a threatened species in India. Results indicated that the prey preference of the fish increased with advancement of developmental stages. Moreover, nocturnal feeding was found to be more significant in the juveniles. Thus, feeding pattern of the different juvenile stages of Chitala is characterized by voracious predatory activity at dark condition. The vector controlling potential of the juvenile stages of Chitala specifically on mosquito and chironomid larvae was also significant. Studies on the distribution pattern of juvenile fishes were made with various combinations, viz. with or without food, in open surface and structured environments and observed during day as well as in dark regime. The juvenile distribution was clumped in open and closed environment during day time to minimize the chances of predation and juvenile mortality irrespective of food availability. A random distribution of juvenile fishes seemed to be advantageous for increasing feeding activity as observed in the experiment. This study is a pointer to the survival strategy of the larvae of C. chitala in their natural habitat which may be important from the perspective of conservation.     

Contrasting Patterns of Larval Mortality in Two Sympatric Riverine Fish Species: A Test of the Critical Period Hypothesis

Understanding the causal mechanisms that determine recruitment success is critical to the effective conservation of wild fish populations. Although recruitment strength is likely determined during early life when mortality is greatest, few studies have documented age-specific mortality rates for fish during this period. We investigated age-specific mortality of individual cohorts of two species of riverine fish from yolksac larvae to juveniles, assaying for the presence of a “critical period”: A time when mortality is unusually high. Early life stages of carp gudgeons (Hypseleotris spp.) and unspecked hardyhead (Craterocephalus stercusmuscarum fulvus)—two fishes that differ in fecundity, egg size and overlap between endogenous and exogenous feeding—were collected every second day for four months. We fitted survivorship curves to 22 carp gudgeon and 15 unspecked hardyhead four-day cohorts and tested several mortality functions. Mortality rates declined with age for carp gudgeon, with mean instantaneous mortality rates (-Z) ranging from 1.40–0.03. In contrast, mortality rates for unspecked hardyhead were constant across the larval period, with a mean -Z of 0.15. There was strong evidence of a critical period for carp gudgeon larvae from hatch until 6 days old, and no evidence of a critical period for unspecked hardyhead. Total larval mortality for carp gudgeon and unspecked hardyhead up to 24 days of age was estimated to be 97.8 and 94.3%, respectively. We hypothesise that life history strategy may play an important role in shaping overall mortality and the pattern of mortality during early life in these two fishes.     

Effect of environment on the adaptive abilities of fry roach Rutilus rutilus (L.) (Cyprinidae) during early ontogenesis

In recent years a considerable decrease in the abundance of predatory fishes has been observed in spawning tributaries of the Rybinsk Reservoir caused by their intensive catching. The lack of encounters with predators before the downstream migration of young fish hampers the development of necessary skills of defensive behavior in the absence of predation experience. As a result, after downstream migration, the juveniles are incapable of adapting to the predation pressure in the reservoir and are subjected to intensive elimination. The adaptive potential of the roach Rutilus rutilus L. was experimentally studied in siblings raised from the larvae to the late fry stage both in the presence and absence of a predator. It has been found that the fry that was raised under different conditions differed in their adaptive potential in new environment conditions.     

Development of bony skeleton in the ontogeny of lumpfish Cyclopterus lumpus (Cyclopteridae,Scorpaeniformes)

The development of bony skeleton is studied in the ontogeny of lumpfish Cyclopterus lumpus. In general, the sequence of appearance of the bony elements is similar to that in other teleost fishes with the exclusion of the absence of the basihyal anlage and the presence of only cartilaginous basibranchials in all examined larvae and juveniles. Bony elements of the ventral sucking disc appear very early (together with the parasphenoid, maxilla, opercle, and cleithrum), and they are characterized by rapid development. The intercalar is observed in the neurocranium of the larvae. In late larvae and in juveniles, the anlage of the medial extrascapular fused with the parietal and the lateral extrascapular attached to the pterotic are registered. C. lumpus differs from Cyclopsis tentacularis and the species of the genus Eumicrotremus in the presence of the cutting in the upper margin of the ceratohyal instead of the berycoid opening. The larvae and juveniles of C. lumpus and C. tentacularis are characterized by the presence of a reduced spiny ray at the origin of the second dorsal fin, most likely, representing a plesiomorphy of the Cyclopteridae. In the larvae of C. lumpus and C. tentacularis of a similar size, the degree of development of skeletal elements is the same, which suggests a similar developmental rate of their skeletal elements.     

Resistance to Taenia pisiformis larvae in rabbits: immunization against infection using non-living antigens from in vitro culture.

Heath D. D. 1976. Resistance to Taenia pisiformis larvae in rabbits: Immunization against infection using non-living antigens from in vitro culture. International Journal for Parasitology6: 19–24. A 97 % protection of rabbits against infection with Taenia pisiformis larvae was stimulated by subcutaneous injections of killed larvae cultured in vitro for 6 or 9 days, combined with the concentrated culture media in which the larvae grew. Larvae cultured in vitro for 3 days or less stimulated only 60% protective immunity.Exogenous antigens produced by 10-day old larvae in vitro were collected free of contaminating macromolecules, and were partially characterized. There appeared to be 6 exogenous antigens. Rabbits were immunized with either frozen larvae, or the exogenous complex, or both, using one subcutaneous injection of antigens adsorbed on aluminium phosphate. Exogenous antigens stimulated an 88% protection against challenge infection 14 days later, while only 52% protection was stimulated by somatic antigens from frozen larvae. The effects of the two antigen complexes were not additive. The protective ability of exogenous antigens was destroyed by exposure to air.