GneZ,a UDP-GlcNAc 2-Epimerase,Is Required for S-Layer Assembly and Vegetative Growth of Bacillus anthracis

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, forms an S-layer atop its peptidoglycan envelope and displays S-layer proteins and Bacillus S-layer-associated (BSL) proteins with specific functions to support cell separation of vegetative bacilli and growth in infected mammalian hosts. S-layer and BSL proteins bind via the S-layer homology (SLH) domain to the pyruvylated secondary cell wall polysaccharide (SCWP) with the repeat structure [→4)-β-ManNAc-(1→4)-β-GlcNAc-(1→6)-α-GlcNAc-(1→]_n, where α-GlcNAc and β-GlcNAc are substituted with two and one galactosyl residues, respectively. B. anthracis gneY (BAS5048) and gneZ (BAS5117) encode nearly identical UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase enzymes that catalyze the reversible conversion of UDP-GlcNAc and UDP-ManNAc. UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase enzymes have been shown to be required for the attachment of the phage lysin PlyG with the bacterial envelope and for bacterial growth. Here, we asked whether gneY and gneZ are required for the synthesis of the pyruvylated SCWP and for S-layer assembly. We show that gneZ, but not gneY, is required for B. anthracis vegetative growth, rod cell shape, S-layer assembly, and synthesis of pyruvylated SCWP. Nevertheless, inducible expression of gneY alleviated all the defects associated with the gneZ mutant. In contrast to vegetative growth, neither germination of B. anthracis spores nor the formation of spores in mother cells required UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase activity.     

LytR-CpsA-Psr Enzymes as Determinants of Bacillus anthracis Secondary Cell Wall Polysaccharide Assembly

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, replicates as chains of vegetative cells by regulating the separation of septal peptidoglycan. Surface (S)-layer proteins and associated proteins (BSLs) function as chain length determinants and bind to the secondary cell wall polysaccharide (SCWP). In this study, we identified the B. anthracis lcpD mutant, which displays increased chain length and S-layer assembly defects due to diminished SCWP attachment to peptidoglycan. In contrast, the B. anthracis lcpB3 variant displayed reduced cell size and chain length, which could be attributed to increased deposition of BSLs. In other bacteria, LytR-CpsA-Psr (LCP) proteins attach wall teichoic acid (WTA) and polysaccharide capsule to peptidoglycan. B. anthracis does not synthesize these polymers, yet its genome encodes six LCP homologues, which, when expressed in S. aureus, promote WTA attachment. We propose a model whereby B. anthracis LCPs promote attachment of SCWP precursors to discrete locations in the peptidoglycan, enabling BSL assembly and regulated separation of septal peptidoglycan.     

Cell surface display of chimeric glycoproteins via the S-layer of Paenibacillus alvei

The Gram-positive, mesophilic bacterium Paenibacillus alvei CCM 2051^T possesses a two-dimensional crystalline protein surface layer (S-layer) with oblique lattice symmetry composed of a single type of O-glycoprotein species. Herein, we describe a strategy for nanopatterned in vivo cell surface co-display of peptide and glycan epitopes based on this S-layer glycoprotein self-assembly system. The open reading frame of the corresponding structural gene spaA codes for a protein of 983 amino acids, including a signal peptide of 24 amino acids. The mature S-layer protein has a theoretical molecular mass of 105.95 kDa and a calculated pI of 5.83. It contains three S-layer homology domains at the N-terminus that are involved in anchoring of the glycoprotein via a non-classical, pyruvylated secondary cell wall polymer to the peptidoglycan layer of the cell wall. For this polymer, several putative biosynthesis enzymes were identified upstream of the spaA gene. For in vivo cell surface display, the hexahistidine tag and the enhanced green fluorescent protein, respectively, were translationally fused to the C-terminus of SpaA. Immunoblot analysis, immunofluorescence staining, and fluorescence microscopy revealed that the fused epitopes were efficiently expressed and successfully displayed via the S-layer glycoprotein matrix on the surface of P. alvei CCM 2051^T cells. In contrast, exclusively non-glycosylated chimeric SpaA proteins were displayed, when the S-layer of the glycosylation-deficient wsfP mutant was used as a display matrix.     

The S-layer homology domains of Paenibacillus alvei surface protein SpaA bind to cell wall polysaccharide through the terminal monosaccharide residue

Self-assembling (glyco)protein surface layers (S-layers) are ubiquitous prokaryotic cell-surface structures involved in structural maintenance, nutrient diffusion, host adhesion, virulence, and other processes, which makes them appealing targets for therapeutics and biotechnological applications as biosensors or drug delivery systems. However, unlocking this potential requires expanding our understanding of S-layer properties, especially the details of surface-attachment. S-layers of Gram-positive bacteria often are attached through the interaction of S-layer homology (SLH) domain trimers with peptidoglycan-linked secondary cell wall polymers (SCWPs). Cocrystal structures of the SLH domain trimer from the Paenibacillus alvei S-layer protein SpaA (SpaA_SLH) with synthetic, terminal SCWP disaccharide and trisaccharide analogs, together with isothermal titration calorimetry binding analyses, reveal that while SpaA_SLH accommodates longer biologically relevant SCWP ligands within both its primary (G2) and secondary (G1) binding sites, the terminal pyruvylated ManNAc moiety serves as the nearly exclusive SCWP anchoring point. Binding is accompanied by displacement of a flexible loop adjacent to the receptor site that enhances the complementarity between protein and ligand, including electrostatic complementarity with the terminal pyruvate moiety. Remarkably, binding of the pyruvylated monosaccharide SCWP fragment alone is sufficient to cause rearrangement of the receptor-binding sites in a manner necessary to accommodate longer SCWP fragments. The observation of multiple conformations in longer oligosaccharides bound to the protein, together with the demonstrated functionality of two of the three SCWP receptor-binding sites, reveals how the SpaA_SLH-SCWP interaction has evolved to accommodate longer SCWP ligands and alleviate the strain inherent to bacterial S-layer adhesion during growth and division.     

Detection technologies for Bacillus anthracis: Prospects and challenges

Bacillus anthracis is a Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium representing the etiological agent of acute infectious disease anthrax, a lethal but rare disease of animals and humans in nature. With recent use of anthrax as a bioweapon, a number of techniques have been recently developed and evaluated to facilitate its rapid detection of B. anthracis in the environment as well as in point-of-care settings for humans suspected of exposure to the pathogen. Complex laboratory methods for B. anthracis identification are required since B. anthracis has similarities with other Bacillus species and its existence in both spore and vegetative forms. This review discusses current challenges and various improvements associated with anthrax agent detection.     

Surface Plasmon Resonance Biosensor for Detection of Bacillus anthracis, the Causative Agent of Anthrax from Soil Samples Targeting Protective Antigen

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax is one of the most important biological warfare agents. In this study, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology was used for indirect detection of B. anthracis by detecting protective antigen (PA), a common toxin produced by all live B. anthracis bacteria. For development of biosensor, a monoclonal antibody raised against B. anthracis PA was immobilized on carboxymethyldextran modified gold chip and its interaction with PA was characterized in situ by SPR and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. By using kinetic evaluation software, K_D (equilibrium constant) and B_max (maximum binding capacity of analyte) were found to be 20 fM and 18.74, respectively. The change in Gibb’s free energy (∆G = −78.04 kJ/mol) confirmed the spontaneous interaction between antigen and antibody. The assay could detect 12 fM purified PA. When anthrax spores spiked soil samples were enriched, PA produced in the sample containing even a single spore of B. anthracis could be detected by SPR. PA being produced only by the vegetative cells of B. anthracis, confirms indirectly the presence of B. anthracis in the samples. The proposed method can be a very useful tool for screening and confirmation of anthrax suspected environmental samples during a bio-warfare like situation.     

Surface localized and extracellular Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase of Bacillus anthracis is a plasminogen binding protein

The role of anchorless proteins on the surface of most pathogenic microorganisms has long been studied in context to their interactions with multiple host proteins, facilitating the dissemination of pathogen within the host tissues. In order to gain more insights into anthrax pathogenesis, we hereby report the presence of a prominent moonlighting enzyme, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) on the surface and in the extracellular medium of Bacillus anthracis. Out of the three heterologously expressed recombinant isoforms, rGapA (334 amino acids in native form; GapA) showed a significant NAD⁺ mediated GAPDH activity, whereas rGapB (342 amino acids in native form; GapB) showed a slight activity with NADP⁺. The rGapN (479 amino acids in native form; GapN) was enzymatically inactive with either NAD⁺ or NADP⁺. GapA was ascertained to be present in the extracellular medium and on the surface of B. anthracis. On the other hand, GapN was absent from both the surface and extracellular medium, whereas GapB was scarcely present on the surface of B. anthracis. Human plasminogen predominantly interacted with the rGapA isoform at physiological concentrations and the interaction was found to be lysine dependent. Immunization with rGapA resulted in a significant protection upon challenge with Bacillus anthracis in the murine model.     

Peptides panned from a phage-displayed random peptide library are useful for the detection of Bacillus anthracis surrogates B. cereus 4342 and B. anthracis Sterne

Recent use of Bacillus anthracis as a bioweapon has highlighted the need for a sensitive monitoring system. Current bacterial detection tests use antibodies as bio-molecular recognition elements which have limitations with regard to time, specificity and sensitivity, creating the need for new and improved cost-effective high-affinity detection probes. In this study, we screened a commercially available bacteriophage-displayed random peptide library using Bacillus cereus 4342 cells as bait to identify peptides that could be used for detection of Bacillus. The method enabled us to identify two 12-amino acid consensus peptide sequences that specifically bind to B. cereus 4342 and B. anthracis Sterne, the nonpathogenic surrogates of B. anthracis strain. The two Bacillus-binding peptides (named BBP-1 and BBP-2) were synthesized with biotin tag to confirm their binding by four independent detection assays. Dot-blot analysis revealed that the peptides bind specifically to B. cereus 4342 and B. anthracis Sterne. Quantitative analysis of this interaction by ELISA and fluorometry demonstrated a detection sensitivity of 10² colony forming U/ml (CFU/ml) by both assays. When the peptides were used in combination with Qdots, the sensitivity was enhanced further by enabling detection of even a single bacterium by fluorescence microscopy. Immunoblot analysis and protein sequencing showed that BBP-1 and BBP-2 bound to the S-layer protein of B. anthracis Sterne. Overall, our findings validate the usefulness of synthetic versions of phage-derived peptides in combination with Qdot-liquid nanocrystals as high sensitivity bioprobes for various microbial detection platforms.     

Influence of the Secondary Cell Wall Polymer on the Reassembly,Recrystallization, and Stability Properties of the S-Layer Protein from Bacillus stearothermophilus PV72/p2

The high-molecular-weight secondary cell wall polymer (SCWP) from Bacillus stearothermophilus PV72/p2 is mainly composed of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) and is involved in anchoring the S-layer protein via its N-terminal region to the rigid cell wall layer. In addition to this binding function, the SCWP was found to inhibit the formation of self-assembly products during dialysis of the guanidine hydrochloride (GHCl)-extracted S-layer protein. The degree of assembly (DA; percent assembled from total S-layer protein) that could be achieved strongly depended on the amount of SCWP added to the GHCl-extracted S-layer protein and decreased from 90 to 10% when the concentration of the SCWP was increased from 10 to 120 μg/mg of S-layer protein. The SCWP kept the S-layer protein in the water-soluble state and favored its recrystallization on solid supports such as poly-l-lysine-coated electron microscopy grids. Derived from the orientation of the base vectors of the oblique S-layer lattice, the subunits had bound with their charge-neutral outer face, leaving the N-terminal region with the polymer binding domain exposed to the ambient environment. From cell wall fragments about half of the S-layer protein could be extracted with 1 M GlcNAc, indicating that the linkage type between the S-layer protein and the SCWP could be related to that of the lectin-polysaccharide type. Interestingly, GlcNAc had an effect on the in vitro self-assembly and recrystallization properties of the S-layer protein that was similar to that of the isolated SCWP. The SCWP generally enhanced the stability of the S-layer protein against endoproteinase Glu-C attack and specifically protected a potential cleavage site in position 138 of the mature S-layer protein.Many bacteria and archaea possess crystalline bacterial cell surface layers (S-layers) as their outermost cell envelope component (3, 36, 38). S-layers are composed of identical protein or glycoprotein subunits which assemble into two-dimensional crystalline arrays showing oblique, square, or hexagonal lattice symmetry. S-layer subunits from bacteria are linked to each other and to the underlying cell envelope layer by noncovalent interactions and may therefore be isolated from whole cells or cell wall fragments by different procedures involving chaotropic agents, detergents, chelating agents, or high salt concentrations or by alkaline or acidic pH conditions. During removal of the disrupting agents, e.g., by dialysis, the S-layer subunits frequently reassemble into flat sheets or open-ended cylinders (in vitro self-assembly in suspension; for reviews, see references 37 and 38).Studies regarding the binding mechanism between the S-layer protein and the underlying cell envelope layer have shown that in gram-negative bacteria, the N-terminal region of the S-layer subunits recognizes specific lipopolysaccharides in the outer membrane (9, 29, 41). For Aeromonas hydrophila it was found, however, that the C-terminal part of the S-layer protein is essential for interaction with the outer membrane (40). A similar observation was reported for the S-layer protein from the gram-positive Corynebacterium glutamicum. A hydrophobic stretch of 21 amino acids located at the C-terminal end of the S-layer protein was found to interact with a hydrophobic layer in the cell wall proper that most probably consisted of mycolic acid (8). In earlier studies it was suggested that secondary cell wall polymers could represent the binding sites for the S-layer proteins from Bacillus sphaericus (15, 16) and Lactobacillus buchneri (24).Recently, a high-molecular-weight secondary cell wall polymer (SCWP) containing glucose and N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) was extracted from peptidoglycan-containing sacculi of two Bacillus stearothermophilus wild-type strains (PV72/p6 and ATCC 12980 [10]). An SCWP of different chemical composition could be isolated from peptidoglycan-containing sacculi of an oxygen-induced variant strain from B. stearothermophilus PV72/p6 (35). The SCWP produced by this variant strain (B. stearothermophilus PV72/p2) is mainly composed of GlcNAc and N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) and shows a molecular weight of about 24,000 (33). Binding studies with proteolytic cleavage fragments and native peptidoglycan-containing sacculi revealed that the N-terminal region is involved in anchoring the S-layer subunits to the rigid cell wall layer (10, 11, 33). Several observations have supported the notion that a specific recognition and binding mechanism exists between the SCWP and the N-terminal region of the S-layer proteins from B. stearothermophilus strains. (i) Despite the overall heterogeneity, S-layer proteins from B. stearothermophilus wild-type strains possess an identical N-terminal region and are capable of binding to an SCWP of identical chemical composition. (ii) B. stearothermophilus PV72/p6 and the oxygen-induced p2 variant produce an SCWP of different chemical composition and structure. (iii) The S-layer protein from B. stearothermophilus PV72/p2 did not recognize native peptidoglycan-containing sacculi from B. stearothermophilus wild-type strains as binding sites (35). (iv) The S-layer protein from B. stearothermophilus PV72/p6 (SbsA) and the oxygen-induced p2 variant (SbsB) are encoded by different genes which show little overall identity (19, 20), and only SbsB possesses a typical S-layer homologous (SLH) domain (23) at the N-terminal part.By sequence comparison, SLH domains (23) were identified on the N-terminal part of several S-layer proteins (6, 13, 23, 27, 30) or at the very C-terminal end of cell-associated exoenzymes and exoproteins (21, 22, 25, 26). SLH domains were suggested to anchor these proteins permanently or transiently to the cell surface. So far, evidence for a binding function of an SLH domain was provided for the S-layer protein of Thermus thermophilus (30) and for the outer-layer proteins of the cellulosome complex from Clostridium thermocellum (21, 22).In the present study, the influence of the SCWP on the formation of self-assembly products in suspension and on the recrystallization properties of the S-layer protein from B. stearothermophilus PV72/p2 on solid supports such as poly-l-lysine-coated electron microscopy (EM) grids was investigated. Moreover, studies on the stability of the S-layer protein against endoproteinase Glu-C attack in the presence and the absence of the SCWP were carried out.     

The Capsule and S-Layer: Two Independent and Yet Compatible Macromolecular Structures in Bacillus anthracis

Bacillus anthracis, the etiological agent of anthrax, is a gram-positive spore-forming bacterium. Fully virulent bacilli are toxinogenic and capsulated. Two abundant surface proteins, including the major antigen, are components of the B. anthracis surface layer (S-layer). The B. anthracis paracrystalline S-layer has previously only been found in noncapsulated vegetative cells. Here we report that the S-layer proteins are also synthesized under conditions where the poly-γ-d-glutamic acid capsule is present. Structural and immunological analyses show that the capsule is exterior to and completely covers the S-layer proteins. Nevertheless, analysis of single and double S-layer protein mutants shows that the presence of these proteins is not required for normal capsulation of the bacilli. Similarly, the S-layer proteins assemble as a two-dimensional crystal, even in the presence of the capsule. Thus, both structures are compatible, and yet neither is required for the correct formation of the other.

Bacillus anthracis, a gram-positive spore-forming bacterium, is the causative agent of anthrax. This disease, to which many animals, including humans, are susceptible, involves toxemia and septicemia. In the mammalian host, B. anthracis bacilli synthesize two toxins (lethal and edema toxins) (31) and a capsule (18) encoded by two large plasmids, pXO1 and pXO2, respectively (12, 21). The capsule is composed of poly-γ-d-glutamic acid and has antiphagocytic properties (13, 31, 37). Although unusual, a similar capsule is also found on Bacillus licheniformis bacilli (9). In the absence of pXO2 or the inducer bicarbonate, the cell does not produce a capsule and the cell wall appears layered. These layers are composed of fragments displaying a highly patterned ultrastructure (10, 16). This type of cell surface is now referred to as the surface layer (S-layer).S-layers are present on the surfaces of many archaea and bacteria (for reviews, see references 29 and 30). Most are formed by noncovalent, entropy-driven assembly of a single (glyco)protein protomer on the bacterial surface, giving rise to proteinaceous paracrystalline layers. Generally, a single S-layer is present, constituting 5 to 10% of total cell protein. Its synthesis is thus presumably energy consuming for the bacterium. Numerous bacteria have S-layers, suggesting that they play important roles in the interaction between the cell and its environment. Various functions have been proposed for S-layers, including shape maintenance and molecular sieving, and they can serve in phage fixation. The S-layer may be a virulence factor, protecting pathogenic bacteria against complement killing, facilitating binding of bacteria to host molecules, or enhancing their ability to associate with macrophages (for reviews, see references 27 and 29).Some bacteria, such as cyanobacteria or Azotobacter spp., possess both a capsule and an S-layer; however, to our knowledge, their structural relationships have not been analyzed through simultaneous genetic and cytologic studies. Both of these features have been independently described for the surface of the pathogenic bacterium B. anthracis. The components of the B. anthracis S-layer are two abundant surface proteins, EA1 and Sap (6, 20). Previous analyses of the B. anthracis S-layer used plasmid-cured strains; consequently, the interaction, if any, between the capsule and the S-layer could not be studied. Temporal or environmental regulation could be such that only one or the other structure is ever present at the cell surface. However, we show that S-layer proteins are synthesized under conditions where the bacilli are capsulated. We determined the localizations of capsule and S-layer components and analyzed whether the S-layer is necessary for proper capsulation. Finally, the assembly of the S-layer proteins in a two-dimensional crystal was examined in the presence of the capsule.     

The three S-layer-like homology motifs of the S-layer protein SbpA of Bacillus sphaericus CCM 2177 are not sufficient for binding to the pyruvylated secondary cell wall polymer

The S-layer protein SbpA of Bacillus sphaericus CCM 2177 recognizes a pyruvylated secondary cell wall polymer (SCWP) as anchoring structure to the peptidoglycan-containing layer. Data analysis from surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy revealed the existence of three different binding sites with high, medium and low affinity for rSbpA on SCWP immobilized to the sensor chip. The shortest C-terminal truncation with specific affinity to SCWP was rSbpA(31-318). Surprisingly, rSbpA(31-202) comprising the three S-layer-like homology (SLH) motifs did not bind at all. Analysis of the SbpA sequence revealed a 58-amino-acid-long SLH-like motif starting 11 amino acids after the third SLH motif. The importance of this motif for reconstituting the functional SCWP-binding domain was further demonstrated by construction of a chimaeric protein consisting of the SLH domain of SbsB, the S-layer protein of Geobacillus stearothermophilus PV72/p2 and the C-terminal part of SbpA. In contrast to SbsB or its SLH domain which did not recognize SCWP of B. sphaericus CCM 2177 as binding site, the chimaeric protein showed specific affinity. Deletion of 213 C-terminal amino acids of SbpA had no impact on the square (p4) lattice structure, whereas deletion of 350 amino acids was linked to a change in lattice type from square to oblique (p1).     

Surface display of the 20-kDa N-terminal fragment of anthrax protective antigen based on attenuated recombinant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus anthracis</Emphasis>

Extracellular antigen 1 (EA1), a major component of the Bacillus anthracis surface layer (S-layer), was used as a fusion partner for the expression of heterologous antigen. A recombinant B. anthracis strain was constructed by integrating a translational fusion harboring the DNA fragments encoding the cell wall–targeting domain of the S-layer protein EA1 and the 20-kDa N-terminal fragment of anthrax protective antigen (PA20) into the chromosome. A thermosensitive plasmid expressing Cre recombinase was introduced at a permissive temperature to remove the antibiotic marker. Cre recombinase action at the loxP sites excised the spectinomycin resistance cassette. The final derivative strains were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, Western blot analysis, and immunofluorescence analysis. PA20 was successfully expressed on the S-layer of the recombinant antibiotic marker-free strain. Guinea pigs were immunized with the attenuated recombinant B. anthracis strain, and the bacilli elicited a humoral response to PA20. This antibiotic marker-free strain and the correlative experiment method may have potential applications for the generation of a live attenuated anthrax vaccine.     

Homogeneous incorporation of secondary cell wall polysaccharides to the cell wall of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thermus thermophilus</Emphasis> HB27

Regular surface protein layers (S-layers) from most Gram-positive bacteria and from the ancestral bacterium Thermus thermophilus attach to pyruvylated polysaccharides (SCWP) covalently bound to the peptidoglycan through their SLH domain. However, it is not known whether the synthesis of SCWP and S-layer is coordinated enough as to follow a similar pattern of incorporation to the cell wall during growth. In this work we analyse the localization of newly synthesized SCWP on the cell wall of T. thermophilus by immunoelectron microscopy. For this, we obtained mutants with a reduced amount of pyruvylated SCWP through mutation of the csaB gene encoding the SCWP-pyruvylating activity, and its upstream gene csaA, a putative sugar transporter. We hypothesized that CsaA would be required for the synthesis of the SCWP. However, we found that csaA mutants showed only a minor decrease in the amount of SCWP immunodetected on the cell walls in comparison with csaB mutants, revealing its irrelevance in the process. Complementation experiments of csaB mutants with CsaB expressed from inducible promoters revealed that newly synthesized SCWP was homogeneously distributed along the cell wall. Fusions with thermostable fluorescent protein revealed that CsaB was distributed also in homogeneous pattern associated with the membrane. These data support that synthesis of SCWP takes place in disperse and homogeneous form all over the cell surface, in contrast to the zonal incorporation at the cell centre recently demonstrated for SlpA.     

Binding to pyruvylated compounds as an ancestral mechanism to anchor the outer envelope in primitive bacteria

Electron microscopy of isolated cell walls of the ancient bacterium Thermus thermophilus revealed that most of the peptidoglycan (PG) surface, apart from the septal region, was shielded against specific alphaPG antibodies. On the other hand, an antiserum raised against S-layer-attached cell wall fragments (alphaSAC) bound to most of the surface except for the septal regions. Treatments with alpha-amylase and pronase E made the entire cell wall surface uniformly accessible to alphaPG and severely decreased the binding of alphaSAC. We concluded that a layer of strongly bound secondary cell wall polymers (SCWPs) covers most of the cell wall surface in this ancient bacterium. A preliminary analysis revealed that such SCWPs constitute 14% of the cell wall and are essentially composed of sugars. Enzyme treatments of the cell walls revealed that SCWP was required in vitro for the binding of the S-layer protein through the S-layer homology (SLH) motif. The csaB gene was necessary for the attachment of the S-layer-outer membrane (OM) complex to the cell wall in growing cells of T. thermophilus. In vitro experiments confirmed that cell walls from a csaB mutant bound to the S-layer with a much lower affinity ( approximately 1/10) than that of the wild type. CsaB was found to be required for pyruvylation of components of the SCWP and for immunodetection with alpha-SAC antiserum. Therefore, the S-layer-OM complex of T. thermophilus binds to the cell wall through the SLH motif of the S-layer protein via a strong interaction with a highly immunogenic pyruvylated component of the SCWP. Immuno-cross-reactive compounds were detected with alphaSAC on cell walls of other Thermus spp. and in the phylogenetically related microorganism Deinococcus radiodurans. These results imply that the interaction between the SLH motif and pyruvylated components of the cell wall arose early during bacterial evolution as an ancestral mechanism for anchoring proteins and outer membranes to the cell walls of primitive bacteria.     

Evolution of pathogenicity in the Bacillus cereus group

The Bacillus cereus group of bacteria comprises soil-dwelling saprophytes but on occasion these bacteria can cause a wide range of diseases in humans, including food poisoning, systemic infections and highly lethal forms of anthrax. While anthrax is almost invariably caused by strains from a single evolutionary lineage, Bacillus anthracis, variation in the virulence properties of strains from other lineages has not been fully addressed. Using multi-locus sequence data from 667 strains, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of the B. cereus group in terms of both clonal inheritance and recombination. The strains included 155 clinical isolates representing B. anthracis, and isolates from emetic and diarrhoeal food poisoning, septicaemia and related infections, wound, and lung infections. We confirmed the existence of three major clades and found that clinical isolates of B. cereus (with the exception of emetic toxin-producing strains) are evenly distributed between and within clades 1 and 2. B. anthracis in particular and emetic toxin-producing B. cereus show more clonal structure and are restricted to clade 1. Our characterization of the patterns of genetic exchange showed that there exist partial barriers to gene flow between the three clades. The pathogenic strains do not exhibit atypically high or low rates of recombination, consistent with the opportunistic nature of most pathogenic infections. However, there have been a large number of recent imports in clade 1 of strains from external origins, which is indicative of an on-going shift in gene-flow boundaries for this clade.     

Surface-layer (S-layer) proteins sap and EA1 govern the binding of the S-layer-associated protein BslO at the cell septa of Bacillus anthracis

The Gram-positive pathogen Bacillus anthracis contains 24 genes whose products harbor the structurally conserved surface-layer (S-layer) homology (SLH) domain. Proteins endowed with the SLH domain associate with the secondary cell wall polysaccharide (SCWP) following secretion. Two such proteins, Sap and EA1, have the unique ability to self-assemble into a paracrystalline layer on the surface of bacilli and form S layers. Other SLH domain proteins can also be found within the S layer and have been designated Bacillus S-layer-associated protein (BSLs). While both S-layer proteins and BSLs bind the same SCWP, their deposition on the cell surface is not random. For example, BslO is targeted to septal peptidoglycan zones, where it catalyzes the separation of daughter cells. Here we show that an insertional lesion in the sap structural gene results in elongated chains of bacilli, as observed with a bslO mutant. The chain length of the sap mutant can be reduced by the addition of purified BslO in the culture medium. This complementation in trans can be explained by an increased deposition of BslO onto the surface of sap mutant bacilli that extends beyond chain septa. Using fluorescence microscopy, we observed that the Sap S layer does not overlap the EA1 S layer and slowly yields to the EA1 S layer in a growth-phase-dependent manner. Although present all over bacilli, Sap S-layer patches are not observed at septa. Thus, we propose that the dynamic Sap/EA1 S-layer coverage of the envelope restricts the deposition of BslO to the SCWP at septal rings.     

Detection of B. anthracis Spores and Vegetative Cells with the Same Monoclonal Antibodies

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax disease, could be used as a biothreat reagent. It is vital to develop a rapid, convenient method to detect B. anthracis. In the current study, three high affinity and specificity monoclonal antibodies (mAbs, designated 8G3, 10C6 and 12F6) have been obtained using fully washed B. anthracis spores as an immunogen. These mAbs, confirmed to direct against EA1 protein, can recognize the surface of B. anthracis spores and intact vegetative cells with high affinity and species-specificity. EA1 has been well known as a major S-layer component of B. anthracis vegetative cells, and it also persistently exists in the spore preparations and bind tightly to the spore surfaces even after rigorous washing. Therefore, these mAbs can be used to build a new and rapid immunoassay for detection of both life forms of B. anthracis, either vegetative cells or spores.     

Methylation-dependent DNA restriction in Bacillus anthracis

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, is poorly transformed with DNA that is methylated on adenine or cytosine. Here we characterize three genetic loci encoding type IV methylation-dependent restriction enzymes that target DNA containing C5-methylcytosine (m5C). Strains in which these genes were inactivated, either singly or collectively, showed increased transformation by methylated DNA. Additionally, a triple mutant with an ~ 30-kb genomic deletion could be transformed by DNA obtained from Dam⁺Dcm⁺E. coli, although at a low frequency of ~ 10^− 3 transformants/10⁶ cfu. This strain of B. anthracis can potentially serve as a preferred host for shuttle vectors that express recombinant proteins, including proteins to be used in vaccines. The gene(s) responsible for the restriction of m6A-containing DNA in B. anthracis remain unidentified, and we suggest that poor transformation by such DNA could in part be a consequence of the inefficient replication of hemimethylated DNA in B. anthracis.     

Identification of Two Binding Domains, One for Peptidoglycan and Another for a Secondary Cell Wall Polymer, on the N-Terminal Part of the S-Layer Protein SbsB from Bacillus stearothermophilus PV72/p2

First studies on the structure-function relationship of the S-layer protein from B. stearothermophilus PV72/p2 revealed the coexistence of two binding domains on its N-terminal part, one for peptidoglycan and another for a secondary cell wall polymer (SCWP). The peptidoglycan binding domain is located between amino acids 1 to 138 of the mature S-layer protein comprising a typical S-layer homologous domain. The SCWP binding domain lies between amino acids 240 to 331 and possesses a high serine plus glycine content.