Growth and differentiation of secondary malpighian tubules in the cockroach,Periplaneta americana

Four differentiated Malpighian tubules (primary tubules) extend from the junction of the midgut and hindgut in newly hatched Periplaneta americana. Secondary tubules begin to develop near the base of the primary tubules before hatching and successive nymphal molts. The newly initiated tubules undergo cell division and extensive elongation through the middle of the following intermolt period. During this time, the cells of the distal, middle, and lower middle tubule regions are surrounded by a cellular sheath, have few cytoplasmic processes extending along their basal surfaces, have a small or nonexistent lumen, and contain extremely dilated cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum. The cellular sheath differentiates into the muscle which coils around the mature tubule. Tubules which begin development toward the end of one intermolt period begin to undergo cytodifferentiation toward the end of the next intermolt period. By the middle of an additional intermolt period, the basal infoldings and microvilli of cells in the distal, middle, and lower middle regions have the conformations typical for those regions in differentiated tubules; granular concretions and stellate cells are present within the middle region of the tubule.     

Ultrastructure of the malpighian tubules of Schistocerca gregaria

The ultrastructure of the Malpighian tubules of the adult desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, is described. Male and female adults possess about 233 tubules, which empty proximally into the midgut-ileal region of the alimentary canal by way of 12 ampullae. The tubules vary from 10 mm to 23 mm in length. About one third of them are directed anteriorly, attaching distally at the caeca, while the remainder are directed posteriorly, attaching to other tubules, the rectum or large tracheal trunks adjacent to the hindgut. The Malpighian tubules from all locations examined consist of three ultrastructurally distinct regions: proximal, middle, and distal, referring to their position relative to the midgut. All cell types possess ultrastructural features characteristic of ion transporting tissue, i.e., elaboration of the basal and apical membranes and a close association of these membranes with mitochondria. The distal and proximal segments are short (1.5-1.7 mm) and heavily tracheated, and each is composed of a single, distinct cell type. The middle region is the longest segment of the Malpighian tubule and is composed of two distinct cell types, primary and secondary. Both cell types are binucleate. The more numerous primary cells have large nuclei, contain laminate concretions in membrane-bound vacuoles, and possess large microvilli that contain mitochondria. The secondary cells are smaller and possess smaller nuclei. The microvilli are reduced and lack mitochondria. Secondary cells do not contain laminate concretions. The possible compartmentalization of ion and fluid transport function based on segmentation in the Malpighian tubules is discussed.     

Ricerche istochimiche e al micro scopio elettronico sui tubi malpighiani di Dacus oleae Gmel.

Summary The Dacus oleae larva possesses four Malpighian tubules, two anterior and two posterior ones, which in pairs enter into a ureter. Before opening into the gut, at the level of the transition zone between the mid- and hindgut, each ureter is dilated into an ampulla.The anterior tubules are divided into four regions: distal, transition, middle and proximal ones: while in the posterior tubules only middle and proximal segments are detectable. The distribution of the enzyme systems is indicated in Fig. 3, while the ultrastructural organization which is typical of the cells composing the different regions is schematically represented in Fig. 1. According to the ultrastructural and enzymatic findings, and the discussion on this subject in the literature, the authors are led to assume that in the distal segment occurs the segregation of uric acid, urates and calcium salts. In the transition segment, and still more in the intermediate one, an indiscriminate transport of water and solutes occurs from the haemocoel into the lumen of the tubule by pinocytosis. A fraction of the catabolites is precipitated as chromolipoidal pigments. The transition stages between cytosomes and pigment are described. Along with secretory phenomena the resorption of useful substances occurs in the proximal region. A similar function is performed by the ureter. In the ampulla, which is characterized by a conspicuous system of deep tubular infoldings both at the apical and basal surfaces of its cells, a massive water resorption is presumed to occur.     

Na-K]ATPase activity in proximal and distal tubules of the rat kidney: modification and application of a quantitative cytochemical technique

A modified cytochemical assay for [Na-K]ATPase in cryostat sections of kidney was further characterized and used to quantify activity in seven functionally distinct sites along the rat nephron. The activity of [Na-K]ATPase was defined as the difference in ATPase activity in specifically identified tubules contained in serial sections incubated with and without ouabain. Preincubation of sections with ouabain was required for maximal inhibition of [Na-K]ATPase activity in several distal sites. The concentration of ouabain necessary for maximal inhibition of activity was 3.0 mM and half-maximal inhibition was obtained in all regions with 30-100 microM ouabain. In distal sites, [Na-K]ATPase formed a higher proportion of total ATPase activity (60-80 per cent) than in proximal sites (20-40 per cent). Enzyme activity was quantified using two different methods. The first measured activity over the basal region of tubules and gave an index of the concentration of [Na-K]ATPase over the basal lateral infoldings of cells composing the tubule. The second read activity over the entire cross section of tubules and provided an estimate of [Na-K]ATPase per length of tubule. The highest activities over the basal basal region were obtained from tubules of the distal nephron including the inner (MALin) and outer (MALout) medullary ascending limb, distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and connecting segment (CS). Lower activities were obtained in proximal convoluted (PCT) tubules, proximal straight (PS) tubules and the papillary collecting duct (PD). Distal convoluted tubules contained the highest activity per length of tubule. Other sites contained lower levels of activity in the following order: MALin greater than MALout greater than PCT greater than PD greater than PS. The modifications introduced increase the sensitivity and precision of this assay and permit the application of this technique to studies of [Na-K]ATPase activity in the major functional regions of the rat nephron.     

Modification of genital kidney nephrons for sperm transport in a plethodontid salamander,Eurycea longicauda

Salamanders possess kidneys with two distinct regions: a caudal pelvic portion and cranial genital portion. Nephrons of the pelvic region are responsible for urine formation and transport. Nephrons of the genital region transport sperm from testes to Wolffian ducts; however, nephrons of the genital region possess all the same functional regions found in pelvic kidney nephrons that are involved with urine formation and transport (renal corpuscles, proximal tubules, distal tubules, and collecting ducts). Morphological similarities between pelvic and genital regions stimulated past researchers to hypothesize that nephrons of genital kidneys possess dual function; that is, sperm transport and urine formation/transport. Considering size of glomeruli is directly related to the total amount of blood plasma filtered into the Bowman's space, we tested the hypothesis that nephrons of genital kidneys have reduced urine formation function by comparing glomerular size between nephrons of pelvic and genital kidney regions in Eurycea longicauda with general histological techniques. Light microscopy analysis revealed that glomeruli of pelvic kidneys were significantly larger than those measured from genital kidneys. Transmission electron microscopy analysis also revealed modifications in genital kidney nephrons when compared to pelvic kidney nephrons that suggested a decrease in urine formation function in genital kidneys. Such modifications included a decrease in basal and lateral plasma membrane folding in genital kidney proximal and distal tubules compared to that of pelvic kidney proximal and distal tubules. Genital kidney proximal tubules were also ciliated, which was not observed in pelvic kidney proximal tubules. In conclusion, although structurally similar at the histological level, it appears that nephrons of genital kidneys have decreased urine formation function based on glomerular size comparison and nephron ultrastructure.     

Differential effects of neuropeptides on the distal and mid-tubules of the house cricket

In the Malpighian tubules of Acheta, the distal and middle segments are functionally and morphologically quite distinct (Spring and Kim, Mol Comp Physiol 12:130–145, 1993). Furthermore, they respond quite differently to corpora cardiaca (CC) homogenates, dibutyryl cAMP, and A23187 (Kim and Spring, J Insect Physiol 38:373–381, 1992). In this study we compared secretion by these two regions in response to Acheta and Romalea CC extracts, synthetic Manduca sexta diuretic peptide (Mas-DP1), and the family of synthetic myotropic peptides, the achetakinins, isolated from Acheta. Both Acheta and Romalea CC extracts had opposite effects on the two regions: mid-tubule secretion increased 3-fold whereas secretion by the distal segment declined 75–80%. Mas-DP1 increased secretion by the mid-tubule more than 3-fold and had no effect on the distal segment. All of the achetakinins decreased secretion by the distal tubule, with achetakinin 1 being least effective (55% inhibition) and achetakinin 5 being most effective (75% inhibition). Achetakinins 1 and 2 increased midtubule secretion by 3.7- and 3.3-fold, respectively, whereas the others had no effect on this region. Regarding HPLC fractions of CC extracts, in general the more hydrophilic fractions inhibited secretion by both distal and mid-tubules. The more hydrophobic fractions were nearly uniformly stimulatory when applied to the mid-tubule, and either inhibited secretion or had no effect on the distal region. The possible interpretations of these data and the implications towards future research are discussed. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Ultrastructure of the tubular nephron of the lizard Podarcis (= Lacerta) Taurica

The proximal, intermediate, and distal convoluted tubules of the neprhon of Podarcis (= Lacerta) taurica were examined by electron microscopy. Proximal tubule cells have large, apical cytoplasmic protrusions and microvilli interpreted to function in urate secretion. Adjacent cells are bound apically by tight junctions and desmosomes but interdigitate in their basal region. This situation is repeated in the other tubules with significant differences in intercellular space width. The basal surfaces bear numerous cytoplasmic processes. The intermediate tubule has proximal and distal segments each with dark, ciliated, and light cells, the cuboidal dark cells with dense cytoplasm constituting the main bulk of the wall. As the cells of the proximal and distal segments resemble those of the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, respectively, the intermediate tubule is considered as a transition region. The ciliated cell body has two broad processes extending from the lumen, one to the basement membrane and one to a foot process of a light cell. The light cell is surrounded by dark and ciliated cells. It does not reach the lumen, but contacts the basement membrane through a process running below a ciliated cell to form a mushroom-shaped structure in tubule cross-section, the light cell process forming the stalk and a ciliated cell the cap. The cilia probably propel the glomerular filtrate towards the distal convoluted tubule. This latter tubule has initial, middle, and terminal zones, all nonciliated but with different lumen widths and cell shapes.     

New insights in the male anatomy,spermatophore formation,and sperm structure in Atyidae: The red cherry shrimp Neocaridina davidi

This study aims to analyze the functional anatomy of the male reproductive system in Neocaridina davidi, a very popular ornamental species of caridean shrimp. Mature males were cold‐anaesthetized and their reproductive systems were dissected for histological and histochemical analysis, while the spermatozoa and spermatophore wall ultrastructure were analyzed under transmission electron microscopy. The male reproductive system consisted of two coiled testes, which were continuous with the vasa deferentia. Testes were positioned on the dorsal side of the cephalothorax above the hepatopancreas, and comprised seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis occurred. Each vas deferens (VD) was a long tube dorsolaterally positioned with respect to the hepatopancreas, and increased in diameter at the distal end. Three regions could be recognized in the VD: proximal, middle, and distal. The proximal region had a cylindrical epithelium with secretory cells. The middle region (or typhlosole) had a dorsal fold (or typhlosole) with a thick columnar epithelium and high secretory activity. The spermatophore was a continuous cord with three acellular layers, which were mainly characterized by the presence of neutral glycoconjugates and proteins. The sperm morphology was distinct from the inverted cup‐shaped spermatozoa observed in the majority of caridean shrimps. The spermatozoa in specimens of N. davidi were spherical in shape, with a cross‐striated, single, short spike, and arranged in clusters of three or four sperm cells. The composition of the spermatophore, and the arrangement and form of the spermatozoa, seem to be unique in comparison to other species of Caridea.     

Analysis of nucleus activity in malpighian tubules of Diatraea saccharalis (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) larvae by critical electrolyte concentration

Diatraea saccharalis (Fabricius) has cryptonephridial type Malphigian tubules (MT). This type of MT is characterized by the penetration of the distal part of the MT into the external walls of the rectum, which is usually lined with a perinephral membrane. The MT is divided into three differentiated regions: proximal, middle and distal. In this study, our objective was to compare the nuclear activities of each one of the three regions of the D. saccharalis MT by using a nuclear basophilic technique and critical electrolyte concentration with a toluidine blue stain at pH 4.0. This method allows differentiation of DNA/protein complexes in in situ and in vitro chromatin. MT chromatin structure in D. saccharalis is variable. Fifth instars have a more decondensed chromatin than fourth instars. The distal tubule region was the most decondensed region of the MT. Our data show an elevated genetic activity of the MT in the pre-metamorphosis period. The distal region of the MT has the highest observed activity, which may be associated with the re-absorption of useful components and the excretion of waste materials.     

A procedure to measure concanavalin-A binding with atomic spectroscopy and X-ray microanalysis

The purpose of this study was to measure the binding of concanavalin A (conA) in minute regions of tissue by labelling the conA with iron dextran; then by measuring the bound iron per site by a procedure which uses atomic absorption spectrophotometry, X-ray microanalysis, and image analysis. The resulting data for a given region gamma are entered into the formula: (Formula: see text). The resulting quantity "iron at gamma" is directly proportional to conA binding in that region. For this study, three regions of rat renal cortex were compared: distal tubules, collecting ducts and blood vessels; glomeruli; and proximal tubules. Regional iron concentrations were: Combined region (distal tubules, etc.), 0.147 +/- 0.107 microgram/mg tissue; glomeruli, 0.199 +/- 0.087 microgram/mg tissue; and proximal tubules, 1.711 +/- 0.303 microgram/mg tissue.     

Dissolution of granules in the Malpighian tubules of Musca autumnalis DeGeer,during mineralization of the puparium

The dissolution of mineralized granules stored in the larval Malpighian tubules of the face fly, Musca autumnalis DeGeer, was studied both in situ and with isolated granules in vitro. The release of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium from granules increased exponentially as the pH of the bathing medium was decreased. The pH measured in the distal region of the Malpighian tubules was 8.08 while that of the proximal region was 7.35. Thus, the decrease in pH of lumen contents from distal to proximal regions of the tubules appears to be a major effector of granule dissolution. Loss of structural integrity of the granules accompanied mineral release and also increased as pH of the bathing medium was lowered in vitro. This structural disintegration was similar to that observed in naturally dissolving granules isolated from the proximal region of the Malpighian tubules. The larval tubules, therefore, appear to have regional specialization in that granules are formed and stored in the distal lumen and dissolution takes place as granules move into the more acidic proximal region. No granules were found in the larval hindgut contents also indicating that dissolution and transport take place in the proximal region of the tubules. However, granules of similar composition were found in the meconium and in the most distal regions of adult Malpighian tubules.     

Unique regional distribution of delta 4-3-ketosteroid-5 alpha-oxidoreductase and associated epididymal morphology in the marsupial, Didelphis virginiana

The epididymal epithelial ultrastructure has been described in the adult male North American opossum, Didelphis virginiana. Morphological results have suggested that absorptive activity is prominent in the proximal epididymal region by virtue of numerous microvilli, an endocytotic complex, dense granules, and multivesicular bodies in the apical cytoplasm. In contrast, the middle and distal epididymal regions exhibit ultrastructural features indicative of protein synthesis such as large invaginated euchromatic nuclei, large nucleoli, and increased amounts of granular endoplasmic reticulum. It is in the middle and distal epididymal regions where sperm head rotation and sperm pairing take place. Epididymal delta 4-3-ketosteroid-5 alpha-oxidoreductase (5 alpha-reductase) activity also has been measured. It has been found that the level of enzyme activity differs significantly (p less than 0.01) between the proximal, middle, and distal epididymal regions. Enzyme-specific activity has been found to be highest in the middle region (47.6 +/- 5.4 picomoles 5 alpha-reduced androgens formed/b/mg protein), lower in the distal region (18.3 +/- 0.7 picomoles 5 alpha-reduced androgens formed/b/mg protein), with little activity (2.4 +/- 1.2 picomoles 5 alpha-reduced androgens formed/h/mg protein) found in the proximal epididymal region. This regional distribution of enzyme activity differs markedly from that reported for eutherian mammals. Both the suggested epididymal protein synthetic and secretory activity and the level of epididymal 5 alpha-reductase activity appear to correlate regionally with the morphological changes that occur in the opossum spermatozoa as they transit the epididymis.     

Modifications of the genital kidney proximal and distal tubules for sperm transport in Notophthalmus viridescens (Amphibia,Urodela, Salamandridae)

Male salamanders use nephrons from the genital kidney to transport sperm from the testicular lobules to the Wolffian duct. The microstructure of the epithelia of the genital kidney proximal tubule and distal tubule was studied over 1 year in a population of Notophthalmus viridescens from Crawford and Pike counties in central Missouri. Through ultrastructural analysis, we were able to support the hypothesis that the genital kidney nephrons are modified to aid in the transportation of sperm. A lack of folding of the basal plasma membrane, in both the genital kidney proximal and distal tubules when compared to the pelvic kidney proximal and distal tubules, reduces the surface area and thus likely decreases the efficiency of reabsorption in these nephron regions of the genital kidney. Ciliated epithelial cells are also present along the entire length of the genital kidney proximal tubule, but are lacking in the epithelium of the pelvic kidney proximal tubule. The exact function of these cilia remains unknown, but they may aid in mixing of seminal fluids or the transportation of immature sperm through the genital kidney nephrons. Ultrastructural analysis of proximal and distal tubules of the genital kidney revealed no seasonal variation in cellular activity and no mass production of seminal fluids throughout the reproductive cycle. Thus, we failed to support the hypothesis that the cellular activity of the epithelia lining the genital kidney nephrons is correlated to specific events in the reproductive cycle. The cytoplasmic contents and overall structure of the genital and pelvic kidney epithelial cells were similar to recent observations in Ambystoma maculatum, with the absence of abundant dense bodies apically in the epithelial cells lining the genital kidney distal tubule. J. Morphol. 275:914–922, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Carbonic anhydrase activity in kidney and lower intestine of the European starling

A histochemical investigation of kidney and lower intestine of the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) shows no carbonic anhydrase activity in proximal convoluted tubules, although activity is seen in similarly prepared sections of rat proximal tubules. Early distal tubule cells in the starling are stained throughout the cytoplasm and at the apical and highly infolded basolateral membranes. Late distal tubules lose apical activity and have reduced basolateral infolding, resulting in less intense staining. Darkly stained intercalated cells appear in the connecting tubules and cortical collecting ducts. Both of these segments also show intense basolateral staining. Medullary cones of the starling are highly organized, with central zones containing unstained thin descending limbs of loops of Henle, surrounded by both medullary collecting ducts with only scattered cells staining for enzyme, and by thick ascending limb segments. The latter contain many uniformly stained cells intermingled with occasional unstained cells. Scattered cells of the starling colonic villi demonstrate intense apical brush border membrane staining as well as cytoplasmic staining. Cells lining the cloaca stain less intensely. A biochemical assay for carbonic anhydrase was used to quantify enzyme activity in these tissues. Starling kidney contained 1.96 ± 0.33 (mean ± SEM) enzyme units/mg protein, less than half the activity seen in rat kidney. Stripped colonic epithelium contained 0.66 ± 0.15 enzyme units/mg protein. These quantitative results correlate well with the interpretations derived from the histochemical observations. The lack of proximal tubule carbonic anhydrase activity suggests that the avian kidney relies more on distal nephron segments to achieve net acidification of the urine.     

Renal oncocytoma: origin from the collecting duct

The histo- and cytogenesis of two cases of renal oncocytoma have been studied by cytomorphological and cytochemical methods. Transitions from collecting ducts into oncocytic tubules were observed at the light and electron microscopic levels. The fine structure of the oncocytes in tubules and tumors is described in detail. Cytochemically, the oncocytic tubules and oncocytomas share many characteristics with the distal nephron, especially the collecting ducts. A striking difference is the enhanced activity of succinic dehydrogenase which corresponds to the increase in the number of mitochondria in oncocytes. All the results suggest that renal oncocytoma originates from the collecting duct.     

The unique ultrastructure of the uterus of the Gyrocotylidea Poche, 1926 (Cestoda) and its phylogenetic implications

The members of the order Gyrocotylidea are monozoic tapeworms and generally considered to be the most primitive group of the Cestoda in terms of the evolution of this platyhelminth class. As part of a series of ultrastructural studies on Gyrocotyle urna (Wagener, 1852), three regions of the uterus were distinguished. The proximal region of the uterus is characterised by underlying perikarya, the presence of septate junctions within the epithelial wall and two types of specialised outer coverings, lamellae and cilia. The middle, syncytial region of the uterus is covered by short lamellae and marked by a concentration of sunken glandular perikarya (uterine glands). Glandular spheroidal granules (c.0.45 μm in diameter) of moderately dense content and a fine fibrillar texture are liberated by migration through the luminal membrane. The epithelium of the sac-shaped, distal region of the uterine duct is interrupted by cytoplasmic processes of sunken epithelial bodies, covered with lamellae and contains septate junctions. A muscular sphincter surrounds the narrow, terminal region of the distal uterine duct. The ultrastructural pattern of the uterus of the Gyrocotylidea has important discriminating traits (i.e. the presence of sunken perikarya along its entire length, septate junctions within the uterine epithelial cytoplasm of the proximal and distal regions, and cilia on the surface of its proximal region) unique among the Neodermata and which may represent autapomorphic character states for the group.     

Functional Morphology of Steroidogenic Tissue and Adrenomedullary Cells in the Adrenal Gland of Rana tigrina (Daud.) and Rana cyanophlyctis (Schn.)

The presence of δ⁵-3β-HSDH, 17β-HSDH, 11β-HSDH, G-6-PDH and DPNH-diaphorase activity has been demonstrated in the interrenal cells of two frogs, R. tigrina and R. cyanophlyctis. The substrate specificity of δ⁵-3β-HSDH and 17β-HSDH was tested by utilizing different specific hydroxysteroids. DL⁵-3β-HSDH, G-6-PDH and NADH-diaphorase activity was relatively more in the peripheral region of the interrenal tissue compared to the cells in the middle region, apparently indicating a zonation of the adrenocortical tissue. The presence of 11β-HSDH, G-6-PDH and NADH-diaphorase has been also observed in the renal tubules which indicates that the renal tubules might convert hydroxysteroids to ketosteroids during steroid excretion. The presence of two types of adrenal medullary cells showing positive iodate and chromate reactions was observed.     

Relationship of symbiotic microorganisms to metanephridium: Phagoctic activity in the metanephridial epithelium of two species of oligochaeta

It is known that a number of species in the annelid family Lumbricidae harbor symbiotic microorganisms in the lumen of their nephridia. The purpose of the present paper is the study of the relationship between microbes and epithelial cells lining the metanephridium of two species of Oligochaeta, which show two different patterns of microbial colonization. A new interesting feature, the phagocytosis and intracellular destruction of microorganisms by the nephridial epithelial cells, has been observed in our laboratory for the first time. In Scheroteca savignyi minor, the phagocytic activity takes place in the bladder, the most distal region of the nephridium, next to the nephridiopore, which may prevent the microorganisms from entering the more proximal regions. In Octolasion cyaneum the microbes reach the striated duct, where they live in symbiosis, adhere to the cell's surface, and are engulfed and destroyed by the cells of the middle tubule—the more proximal, neighboring region. The phagocytosis and intracellular degradation of microorganisms probably lead to the massive formation of lamellar bodies, which are observed in these cells and in the neighboring ones.     

Free Radicals in Rabbit Spinal Cord Ischemia: Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy and Correlation with SOD Activity

1. In nonanesthetized rabbits temporal occlusion of the abdominal aorta was used to induce oxidative stress in the lower part of the body including distal segments of the spinal cord.2. Spinal cord samples were taken from the animals exposed to 25-min aortic occlusion (AO ) or to occlusion followed by 1- or 2-hr reperfusion (AO/R1 or AO/R2, respectively) or from sham-operated animals (C). The presence of free radicals (FR) in the spinal cord samples frozen in liquid N₂ was assessed by ESR spectroscopy without spin trapping. Moreover, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and conjugated diene (CD) levels were measured in the samples.3. In the AO group FR were detected in the spinal cord regions close to the occlusion (lower thoracic and distal segments) along with a decrease in SOD activity. The calculated g value (g = 2.0291) indicated that the paramagnetic signal recorded might be attributed to superoxide radicals. FR were absent in the AO/R1 group. Concurrently, the SOD activity revealed a significant tendency to return to the control level. FR appeared again in the AO/R2 group, mostly in the upper and middle lumbar regions, along with a decrease in SOD activity. No sample from the C group revealed FR. A significant increase in CD levels was observed in the thoracolumbar region only in the AO/R2 group. The temporary absence of FR in the AO/R1 group suggests activation of defense antioxidant mechanisms (e.g., specific enzymatic systems such as SOD), which might have been exhausted later.4. Changes in SOD activity similar to those observed in the thoracolumbar region, though less noticeable, occurred in the obviously noncompromised tissue (upper cervical region). This points to a kind of generalized reponse of the animal to aortic occlusion.5. Direct ESR spectroscopy revealed the presence of FR as well as their time course in the spinal cord during the early phase of ischemia/reperfusion injury and the inverse relationship between FR and SOD activity.     

Microanatomy of the testes and testicular ducts of the butterfly lizard,Leiolepis ocellata Peters, 1971 (Reptilia: Squamata: Agamidae) during the active reproductive period

The microanatomy of the testes and testicular ducts (rete testis, ductuli efferentes, ductus epididymis and ductus deferens) of Leiolepis ocellata (Agamidae) was investigated using light microscopy including histochemistry. Each testis contains seminiferous tubules and interstitial tissues. The former house spermatogenic cells (spermatogonia A & B, preleptotene, primary and secondary spermatocytes, spermatids (steps 1–8) and spermatozoa) and Sertoli cells, while the latter comprise peritubular and intersitial tissues. The rete testis is an anastomosing duct, having intratesticular and extratesticular portions. The proximal region of ductuli efferentes has wider outer ductal and luminal diameters than those of the distal region. The convoluted ductus epididymis is subdivided into four regions (initial segment, caput, corpus and cauda), based on the ductal diameter, epithelium characteristics and cell components. The ductus deferens has the greatest diameter and is divided into the ductal and ampulla ductus deferens. The ductal portion is subdivided into the proximal and distal regions, based on the epithelium types and ductal diameters. The ampulla ductus deferens is a fibromuscular tube, having numerous mucosal folds projecting into the lumen. Spermiophagy is detectable in the ductus epididymis and ductus deferens. The present results contribute to improved fundamental knowledge on the microanatomy of the reptilian reproductive system.