On the Fine Structure of the Alimentary Tract of Cephalodiscus gracilis (Pterobranchia,Hemichordata)

The U-shaped alimentary tract of Cephalodiscus is of exclusively epithelial structure; on the basis of fine structural criteria the entire tract can be divided into two large subdivisions: an anterior one with mouth, mouth cavity, pharynx and oesophagus, and a posterior one with stomach and intestine. The anterior subdivision is built up of a relatively uniform, innervated, pseudostratified, ciliated epithelium with mucus cells which are concentrated in the initial parts of the mouth cavity. Cilia and mucus presumably constitute a mechanism transporting food particles into the stomach. In the area of the gill slits specific vacuolated cells occur which may lend rigidity to the walls of the slits. The gastric epithelium consists of prismatic cells characterized by, among others, large inclusion bodies, which may represent digestive vacuoles, small dense rod-shaped granules and an elaborate system of microridges, at the base of which abundant endocytotic vesicles occur. The dorsal gastric pouch contains cells rich in rough ER and secretory granules, probably containing digestive enzymes. Thus morphological evidence points both to intra- and extracellular digestion. The intestinal epithelium resembles that of the stomach, however, it is lower, its organelles are fewer and it bears, beside cilia, mainly microridges, which towards its distal end become sparse. Both in the gastric and intestinal epithelium small granulated cells have been found, which presumably represent endocrine cells.     

Fine Structure of Heart,Pericardium and Glomerular Vessel in Cephalodiscus gracilis M'Intosh, 1882 (Pterobranchia,Hemichordata)

Heart, pericardium and glomerular vessel of Cephalodiscus gracilis have been studied with the electron microscope. The lumen of the heart is lined by a basal lamina and an associated epithelium, composed of myoepithelial cells with well developed thin and thick myofilaments. The heart is located in the pericardial cavity, which is deliminated by the pericardium. The latter is composed of two flat layers of myoepithelia with fused basal laminae. The outer layer of the pericardium is the protocoelomic lining, and the inner layer is the ‘parietal’ pericardial epithelium. The myoepithelium forming the heart wall can be considered to represent the ‘visceral’ pericardial epithelium. The spacious glomerular vessel is lined by a basal lamina, on which typical podocytes rest. These cells indicate that ultrafiltration takes place through the wall of the glomerular vessel. The lumen of the vessel contains fine granular material (presumably precipitated blood proteins), fibrils with a faint cross striation, suggesting that they represent collagen, and stellate cells, which in part line the vessel. Since ultrafiltration requires hydrostatic pressure, it is inferred that the blood flow is from the dorsal region then through the heart and into the glomerular vessel.     

Feeding and gut contents in Cephalodiscus nigrescens (Hemichordata, Pterobranchia) from the Weddell Sea

The gut of the pterobranch hemichordate Cephalodiscus nigrescens contains plankton of sizes from less than 1 μm to over 100 μm in diameter. Some of the smaller plankton are clumped together in spherical bolus that is mucus-bound. Most plankton types known from the habitat are respresnted amongst the gut contents.     

An intertidal Rhabdopleura (Hemichordata, Pterobranchia) from Fiji

Rhabdopleura has been discovered living in coral rubble on reefs in Fiji. The habitat is unusual, being the underside of coral boulders in the intertidal zone. Some features of the environment and the fauna associated with the Rhabdopleura are briefly described. The Rhabdopleura zooids exhibit other modes of tube building besides the regular cylindrical horizontal and erect tubes. The colony ramifies through interstices in the dead coral and the zooids can line larger cavities within the coral with coenecial tissue. It is probably these cavities, together with the overall porosity of coral, that retain enough water to keep the zooids alive while the intertidal reef flat is exposed to the air. Within the depths of the coral the black stolons are frequently naked. The species is probably R. normani Allman.     

The prosicular stage of Rhabdopleura (Pterobranchia: Hemichordata)

After settling, the larva of Rhabdopleura surrounds itself with a collagenous dome. Later, the zooid breaks through the wall of the dome and builds the horizontal tube part of the coenecium on to the dome.
The dome is a layered structure, unknown in other parts of the coenecium. whereas the horizontal tube is made up of rings in the classical manner of the adult coenecium. The construction of these two parts is different. The techniques used to reinforce the horizontal tube show a marked similarity to the cortical bandages recently described in the fossil graptolites, and give support to the claim that they are ancestral to Rhabdopleura. There are two sorts of early horizontal tube, one is a straight tube, and the other is longer and coiled. The hole in the dome through which the zooid emerges to build the horizontal tube is probably produced by a chemical boring of the zooid, and supports the hypothesis that the zooids can bore holes in shells and corals.     

Ultrastructure of Adult Gonads and Development and Structure of the Larva of Rhabdopleura normani (Hemichordata: Pterobranchia)

Sexually mature adults, embryos and larvae of the pterobranch Rhabdopleura normani from Bermuda were studied with light and electron microscopy. The sexes are separate among the zooids of a colony, but a given colony may contain females and males. In zooids of either sex the single gonad is associated with a large haemal sinus in the trunk sac and is displaced laterally (to the right or to the left). The wall of the gonad is composed of three layers: an outer metasomal peritoneum, an internal lining of germinal epithelium and an intervening genital haemal sinus. The mature gametes lie in the lumen within the gonad. The spermatozoon is characterized by an elongate nucleus, no obvious acrosome, a long mitochondrial filament in a midpiece appendix and a single flagellum with a 9+2 axoneme. Females brood 200 μm eggs and embryos in their distinctive, basally coiled tubes. The yolky eggs undergo radial cleavage and develop into ciliated, lecithotrophic, oblong larvae (400 μm in length) that are characterized by: (1) yellow coloration peppered with black pigment spots; (2) a deep ventral depression; (3) a posterior adhesive organ; (4) an anterior apical sensory organ; (5) an evenly ciliated epitdermis. The ventral depression is not invaginating endoderm, but is instead a glandular epithelium that evidently secretes the larval cocoon and the adult tube. Internally, the peritoneum of the coelomic cavities begins to split from the periphery of a large, central mass of yolky mesenchyme cells. The larva swims using cilia, but also undergoes contractions, evidently powered by the peritoneal cells, which constitute a myoepithelium. The discussion considers pterobranch affinities with other deuterostomes and with lophophorates.     

The central and peripheral nervous system of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cephalodiscus gracilis</Emphasis> (Pterobranchia,Deuterostomia)

Nervous systems are important in assessing interphyletic phylogenies because they are conservative and complex. Regarding nervous system evolution within deuterostomes, two contrasting hypotheses are currently discussed. One that argues in favor of a concentrated, structured, central nervous system in the last common ancestor of deuterostomes (LCAD); the other reconstructing a decentralized nerve net as the nervous system of the LCAD. Here, we present a morphological analysis of the nervous system of the pterobranch deuterostome Cephalodiscus gracilis Harmer, 1905 based on transmission electron microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and computer-assisted 3D reconstructions based on complete serial histological sections. The entire nervous system constitutes a basiepidermal plexus. The prominent dorsal brain at the base of the mesosomal tentacles contains an anterior concentration of serotonergic neurons and a posterior net of neurites. Predominant neurite directions differ between brain regions and synapses are present, indicating that the brain constitutes a centralized portion of the nervous system. Main structures of the peripheral nervous system are the paired branchial nerves, tentacle nerves, and the ventral stalk nerve. Serotonergic neurites are scattered throughout the epidermis and are present as concentrations along the anterior border of the branchial nerves. Serotonergic neurons line each tentacle and project into the brain. We argue that the presence of a centralized brain in C. gracilis supports the hypothesis that a nerve center was present in the LCAD. Moreover, based on positional and structural similarity, we suggest that the branchial nerves in C. gracilis could be homologous to branchial nerves in craniates, a hypothesis that should be further investigated.     

The dormant buds of Rhabdopleura compacta (Hemichordata)

Rhabdopleura has an overwintering stage that consists of two layers of cells surrounding a central yolk mass. This cellular part is surrounded by a thick electron dense capsule which is secreted by the bud itself. The capsule is probably impervious and protective to its contents. Blood vessels join the buds to the zooids of the colony. They form the probable route of transfer of yolk from the zooids to the dormant bud. The capsule of the dormant bud has some structural features in common with the black stolon of the adult zooids. The black stolon is probably formed in a manner similar to that which made the fusellar fabric of the periderm of fossil graptolities.     

Feeding Characteristics of Deep-Sea Acorn Worm (Hemichordata,Enteropneusta, Torquaratoridae) from the Bering Sea

Doklady Biological Sciences - Deep-sea hemichordates Torquaratoridae gen. sp. reach high abundance up to 12 spec. m–2 at the depths of 1830–2130 m on the slope of the Volcanologists...     

Cedkathryns A and B, pentanortriterpenoids from Cedrelopsis gracilis (Ptaeroxylaceae)

The stem bark of Cedrelopsis gracilis (Ptaeroxylaceae) has yielded three known prenylated coumarins, O-methylalloptaeroxylin, ptaerochromenol and umtatin and the novel pentanortriterpenoids, cedkathryn A and cedkathryn B.     

The First Discovery of Trematodes (Digenea) in the Deep-Sea Acorn Worms Torquaratoridae (Hemichordata,Enteropneusta)

Doklady Biological Sciences - Trematodes found in the enteropneust hemichordates are described for the first time. Metacercariae have been found in the trunk coelom, in the collar coelom, in the...     

Karyological studies of three species of Cladophora (Cladophorales,Chlorophyta) from Bermuda

Abstract

Chromosome numbers for three species of Cladophora from Bermuda are presented. C. laetevirens (Dillw.) Kuetz., C. prolifera (Roth) Kuetz., and C. conferta Crouan frat. ex Schramm & Maze were found to have similar karyotypes with 1 N = 2 X = 12 chromosomes belonging to size class III (0.8–2.2 μm). Correlations between each species' karyotype and its morphology and phytogeographic affinity are discussed. Estimates of the basic genome (1 X) for these and other Cladophora species indicate that nuclear DNA content, which shows a threefold variation in the genus, occurs in discontinuous increments. These findings are discussed in relation to reports of large scale, discontinuous DNA variation in vascular plant genera.     

The relationship between social behaviour and habitat familiarity in African elephants (Loxodonta africana)

Social associations with conspecifics can expedite animals'' acclimation to novel environments. However, the benefits gained from sociality may change as the habitat becomes familiar. Furthermore, the particular individuals with whom animals associate upon arrival at a new place, familiar conspecifics or knowledgeable unfamiliar residents, may influence the type of information they acquire about their new home. To examine animals'' social dynamics in novel habitats, we studied the social behaviour of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) translocated into a novel environment. We found that the translocated elephants'' association with conspecifics decreased over time supporting our hypothesis that sociality provides added benefits in novel environments. In addition, we found a positive correlation between body condition and social association, suggesting that elephants gain direct benefits from sociality. Furthermore, the translocated elephants associated significantly less than expected with the local residents and more than expected with familiar, but not necessarily genetically related, translocated elephants. The social segregation between the translocated and resident elephants declined over time, suggesting that elephants can integrate into an existing social setting. Knowledge of the relationship between sociality and habitat familiarity is highly important in our constantly changing world to both conservation practice and our understanding of animals'' behaviour in novel environments.     

Ontogenetic habitat shifts by Galaxias gracilis (Galaxiidae) between the littoral and limnetic zones of Lake Kanono, New Zealand

Synopsis Diel and spatial differences in distribution were determined for the larvae, juveniles, and adults of Galaxias gracilis (Galaxiidae) in a New Zealand dune lake during summer months. Larvae (mostly 10–25 mm TL) and juveniles (25–40 mm TL) inhabited shallow (0–3 m) waters of the limnetic zone and fed predominantly on two limnetic zooplankton species; Bosmina meridionalis and a calanoid copepod. At about 40 mm TL, fish moved from the limnetic to the littoral zone and expanded dietary breadth from two to over seven main prey species, including five species of littoral invertebrates. After reaching a size of about 60 mm TL, most fish moved back offshore to the deeper waters (5–15 m) of the limnetic zone during the day, moving back to the littoral zone at night to feed on invertebrates. The selection of different intra-lacustrine habitats by the various size groups of G. gracilis, and the movements between them, are interpreted as adaptive responses to the interaction between ontogenetic changes in feeding requirements and predation risk.     

Morphology and development of a new species of Balanoglossus (Hemichordata: Enteropneusta: Ptychoderidae) from Shimoda, Japan

The morphology and development of a new species of the genus Balanoglossus belonging to the family Ptychoderidae are described in detail. This acorn worm was collected from the sandy seashore in the cove near Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba (Shimoda, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan). This acorn worm is easily distinguished from other balanoglossids by a characteristic hepatic region. There are two kinds of hepatic saccules: large, dark-colored saccules in the anterior region and small, light-colored saccules in the posterior region. Between the two subregions of the hepatic region, there is a small region that has no or tiny saccules. This species does not form distinct burrows or mounds of casts. The breeding season is in winter. The process of embryogenesis from fertilization to metamorphosis was observed. A shift in seawater temperature from about 13 degrees C to about 9 degrees C induced gamete release. Two days after fertilization, embryos hatched and became typical feeding tornaria larvae. Two months after fertilization these larvae metamorphosed into juveniles and began their benthic life.     

The anatomy, life habits, and later development of a new species of enteropneust, Harrimania planktophilus (Hemichordata: Harrimaniidae) from Barkley Sound

A new species of enteropneust, Harrimania planktophilus, lives intertidally and subtidally in mixed sediments in Barkley Sound, British Columbia, Canada. H. planktophilus has a long proboscis skeleton extending into the pharyngeal region. The collar (mesosome) has complete dorsal and ventral mesenteries. The trunk (metasome) has four distinct regions that can be recognized externally: the branchial region, esophageal region, hepatic region, and an undifferentiated intestinal region leading to the anus. The dorsal pharynx is large and has long gill slits without synapticles. Posterior to the gills is a constriction followed by a short esophageal region and a long gonadal region. The paired dorsolateral gonads extend almost to the end of the trunk. Eggs in the ovaries appear amber yellow, and the testes appear slightly paler. The trunk terminates at an anus with a well-developed sphincter muscle. H. planktophilus forms long sinuous burrows that are semipermanent and shared. Females deposit a tubular egg mass in a burrow in which the embryos develop directly into juveniles. Gastrulation appears to be by invagination, followed by a ciliated stage that has a telotrochal swimming band, suggesting that the ancestor to H. planktophilus developed via a tornaria larva. The juveniles emerge from the egg membrane with a ventral post-anal tail and assume an interstitial burrowing life habit. The post-anal tail, mode of development, small size and correlated simplification in body plan suggest that H. planktophilus is closely related to Saccoglossus, and together these worms may be sister taxa to the colonial Pterobranchia. A taxonomic key is provided to the enteropneust genera, and to the species of Harrimania: