Genetic Determinants of Reovirus Pathogenesis in a Murine Model of Respiratory Infection

Many viruses invade mucosal surfaces to establish infection in the host. Some viruses are restricted to mucosal surfaces, whereas others disseminate to sites of secondary replication. Studies of strain-specific differences in reovirus mucosal infection and systemic dissemination have enhanced an understanding of viral determinants and molecular mechanisms that regulate viral pathogenesis. After peroral inoculation, reovirus strain type 1 Lang replicates to high titers in the intestine and spreads systemically, whereas strain type 3 Dearing (T3D) does not. These differences segregate with the viral S1 gene segment, which encodes attachment protein σ1 and nonstructural protein σ1s. In this study, we define genetic determinants that regulate reovirus-induced pathology following intranasal inoculation and respiratory infection. We report that two laboratory isolates of T3D, T3D^C and T3D^F, differ in the capacity to replicate in the respiratory tract and spread systemically; the T3D^C isolate replicates to higher titers in the lungs and disseminates, while T3D^F does not. Two nucleotide polymorphisms in the S1 gene influence these differences, and both S1 gene products are involved. T3D^C amino acid polymorphisms in the tail and head domains of σ1 protein influence the sensitivity of virions to protease-mediated loss of infectivity. The T3D^C polymorphism at nucleotide 77, which leads to coding changes in both S1 gene products, promotes systemic dissemination from the respiratory tract. A σ1s-null virus produces lower titers in the lung after intranasal inoculation and disseminates less efficiently to sites of secondary replication. These findings provide new insights into mechanisms underlying reovirus replication in the respiratory tract and systemic spread from the lung.     

Mutant Cells Selected during Persistent Reovirus Infection Do Not Express Mature Cathepsin L and Do Not Support Reovirus Disassembly

Persistent reovirus infections of murine L929 cells select cellular mutations that inhibit viral disassembly within the endocytic pathway. Mutant cells support reovirus growth when infection is initiated with infectious subvirion particles (ISVPs), which are intermediates in reovirus disassembly formed following proteolysis of viral outer-capsid proteins. However, mutant cells do not support growth of virions, indicating that these cells have a defect in virion-to-ISVP processing. To better understand mechanisms by which viruses use the endocytic pathway to enter cells, we defined steps in reovirus replication blocked in mutant cells selected during persistent infection. Subcellular localization of reovirus after adsorption to parental and mutant cells was assessed using confocal microscopy and virions conjugated to a fluorescent probe. Parental and mutant cells did not differ in the capacity to internalize virions or distribute them to perinuclear compartments. Using pH-sensitive probes, the intravesicular pH was determined and found to be equivalent in parental and mutant cells. In both cell types, virions localized to acidified intracellular organelles. The capacity of parental and mutant cells to support proteolysis of reovirus virions was assessed by monitoring the appearance of disassembly intermediates following adsorption of radiolabeled viral particles. Within 2 h after adsorption to parental cells, proteolysis of viral outer-capsid proteins was observed, consistent with formation of ISVPs. However, in mutant cells, no proteolysis of viral proteins was detected up to 8 h postadsorption. Since treatment of cells with E64, an inhibitor of cysteine-containing proteases, blocks reovirus disassembly, we used immunoblot analysis to assess the expression of cathepsin L, a lysosomal cysteine protease. In contrast to parental cells, mutant cells did not express the mature, proteolytically active form of the enzyme. The defect in cathepsin L maturation was not associated with mutations in procathepsin L mRNA, was not complemented by procathepsin L overexpression, and did not affect the maturation of cathepsin B, another lysosomal cysteine protease. These findings indicate that persistent reovirus infections select cellular mutations that affect the maturation of cathepsin L and suggest that alterations in the expression of lysosomal proteases can modulate viral cytopathicity.     

Diminished Reovirus Capsid Stability Alters Disease Pathogenesis and Littermate Transmission

Reovirus is a nonenveloped mammalian virus that provides a useful model system for studies of viral infections in the young. Following internalization into host cells, the outermost capsid of reovirus virions is removed by endosomal cathepsin proteases. Determinants of capsid disassembly kinetics reside in the viral σ3 protein. However, the contribution of capsid stability to reovirus-induced disease is unknown. In this study, we found that mice inoculated intramuscularly with a serotype 3 reovirus containing σ3-Y354H, a mutation that reduces viral capsid stability, succumbed at a higher rate than those infected with wild-type virus. At early times after inoculation, σ3-Y354H virus reached higher titers than wild-type virus at several sites within the host. Animals inoculated perorally with a serotype 1 reassortant reovirus containing σ3-Y354H developed exaggerated myocarditis accompanied by elaboration of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Surprisingly, unchallenged littermates of mice infected with σ3-Y354H virus displayed higher titers in the intestine, heart, and brain than littermates of mice inoculated with wild-type virus. Together, these findings suggest that diminished capsid stability enhances reovirus replication, dissemination, lethality, and host-to-host spread, establishing a new virulence determinant for nonenveloped viruses.     

Alteration of Catecholamine Phenotype in Transgenic Mice Influences Expression of Adrenergic Receptor Subtypes

Abstract: Agonist-induced regulation of adrenergic receptors (ARs) has an important role in controlling physiological functions in response to changes in catecholamine stimulation. We previously generated transgenic mice expressing phenylethanolamine N -methyltransferase (PNMT) under the control of a human dopamine β-hydroxylase gene promoter to switch catecholamine specificity from the norepinephrine phenotype to the epinephrine phenotype. In the present study, we first examined changes in catecholamine metabolism in peripheral tissues innervated by sympathetic neurons of the transgenic mice. In the transgenic target tissues, a high-level expression of PNMT led to a dramatic increase in the epinephrine levels, whereas the norepinephrine levels were decreased to 48.6–87.9% of the nontransgenic control levels. Analysis of plasma catecholamines in adrenalectomized mice showed large amounts of epinephrine derived from sympathetic neurons in the transgenic mice. Subsequently, we performed radioligand binding assays with (−)-[¹²⁵I]iodocyanopindolol to determine changes in binding sites of β-AR subtypes. In transgenic mice, the number of β2-AR binding sites was 56.4–74.9% of their nontransgenic values in the lung, spleen, submaxillary gland, and kidney, whereas the β1-AR binding sites were regulated in a different fashion among these tissues. Moreover, northern blot analysis of total RNA from the lung tissues showed that down-regulation of β2 binding sites was accompanied by a significant decrease in steady-state levels of the receptor mRNA. These results strongly suggest that alteration of catecholamine specificity in the transgenic sympathetic neurons leads to regulated expression of the β-AR subtypes in their target tissues.     

Apoptosis Induction Influences Reovirus Replication and Virulence in Newborn Mice

Apoptosis is a type of controlled cell death that is essential for development and tissue homeostasis. It also serves as a robust host response against infection by many viruses. The capacity of neurotropic viruses to induce apoptosis strongly correlates with virulence. However, the precise function of apoptosis in viral infection is not well understood. Reovirus is a neurotropic virus that induces apoptosis in a variety of cell types, including central nervous system neurons, leading to fatal encephalitis in newborn mice. To determine the effect of apoptosis on reovirus replication in the host, we generated two otherwise isogenic viruses that differ in a single amino acid in viral capsid protein μ1 that segregates with apoptotic capacity. Apoptosis-proficient and apoptosis-deficient viruses were compared for replication, dissemination, tropism, and tissue injury in newborn mice and for the capacity to spread to uninfected littermates. Our results indicate that apoptotic capacity enhances reovirus replication in the brain and consequent neurovirulence but reduces transmission efficiency. The replication advantage of the apoptosis-proficient strain is limited to the brain and correlates with enhanced infectivity of neurons. These studies reveal a new cell type-specific determinant of reovirus virulence.     

Cathepsin X Cleaves Profilin 1 C-Terminal Tyr139 and Influences Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis

Cathepsin X, a cysteine carboxypeptidase, is upregulated in several types of cancer. Its molecular target in tumor cells is profilin 1, a known tumor suppressor and regulator of actin cytoskeleton dynamics. Cathepsin X cleaves off the C-terminal Tyr139 of profilin 1, affecting binding of poly-L-proline ligands and, consequently, tumor cell migration and invasion. Profilin 1 with mutations at the C-terminus, transiently expressed in prostate cancer cells PC-3, showed that Tyr139 is important for proper function of profilin 1 as a tumor suppressor. Cleaving off Tyr139 prevents the binding of clathrin, a poly-L-proline ligand involved in endocytosis. More profilin 1—clathrin complexes were present in PC-3 cells when cathepsin X was inhibited by its specific inhibitor AMS36 or silenced by siRNA. As a consequence, the endocytosis of FITC-labeled dextran and transferrin conjugate was significantly increased. These results constitute the first report of the regulation of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in tumor cells through proteolytic processing of profilin 1.     

棉铃虫组织蛋白酶B酶原在毕赤酵母中的表达

棉铃虫组织蛋白酶B（ Helicoverpa armigera Cathepsin B ,HCB）属于半胱氨酸蛋白酶类,参与胚胎发育中卵黄蛋白水解供给胚胎发育的氨基酸。本研究将HCB基因克隆到pPIC9K载体并转化毕赤酵母KM71菌株,经甲醇诱导,HCB表达并分泌到培养上清中。表达产物经SDS-PAGE测定分子量为38 kD, 与HCB基因编码的蛋白质分子量一致。用HCB的特异性抗体检测表明重组表达产物为棉铃虫组织蛋白酶B,原位水解实验显示重组表达的蛋白酶具有蛋白水解活性,表明在毕赤酵母中表达了有活性的棉铃虫组织蛋白酶B, 可用于组织蛋白酶B酶原活化机理研究及开发新蛋白酶产品。     

大鼠脑缺血再灌注后溶酶体组织蛋白酶B表达的动态变化

目的:探讨大鼠脑缺血再灌注后溶酶体组织蛋白酶B(Cathepsin-B,CB)在不同时段表达变化.方法:将60只SD大鼠随机分为正常组(10只),假手术组(10只)和脑缺血再灌注组(40只),线栓法制备大脑中动脉梗死模型(MCAO),免疫组化和RT-PCR法分别检测Cathepsin-B的蛋白和mRNA表达.结果与正常组和假手术组比较,模型组大鼠脑缺血再灌注后1hCathepsin-B的蛋白和mRNA表达明显增强,6h达高峰,48h仍保存高水平.结论:Cathepsin-B在大鼠脑缺血再灌注后表达增强,可能在神经元凋亡中发挥着重要的作用.     

去铁敏干预蛛网膜下腔出血后溶酶体组织蛋白酶表达研究

目的:探讨大鼠蛛网膜下腔出血(SAH,Subarachnoid Hemorrhage)早期脑损伤中溶酶体组织蛋白酶B(CathepsinB)、溶酶体组织蛋白酶D(Cathepsin D)的表达变化及去铁敏(DFO)对其的影响.方法:将24只SD大鼠随机分为四组:正常对照组(6只),SAH模型组(6只),安慰剂组(6只),DFO药物组(6只),视交叉前池注血法(APC)制作大鼠SAH模型,免疫组化分别检测CathepsinD、CathepsinB的蛋白表达,干湿法测定48 h脑含水量.结果:与正常组比较,SAH模型组大鼠48 h后CathepsinD、Cathepsin B的蛋白表达明显增强,水肿指数增高,DFO药物组大鼠48h后Cathepsin D、Cathepsin B的蛋白表达较SAH组明显减低,水肿指数减低.结论:Cathepsin D、Cathepsin B在大鼠蛛网膜下腔出血后表达增强,DFO能减少其表达并对早期脑损伤有保护作用,溶酶体可能参与了蛛网膜下腔出血早期脑损伤的过程,稳定溶酶体膜,减少Cathepsin B/D的释放可能为SAH后早期脑损伤提供新的治疗途径.     

New Functional Aspects of Cathepsin D and Cathepsin E

Cathepsin D (CD) and cathepsin E are representative lysosomal and nonlysosomal aspartic proteinases, respectively, and play an important role in the degradation of proteins, the generation of bioactive proteins, antigen processing, etc. Recenty, several lines of evidence have suggested the involvement of these two enzymes in the execution of neuronal death pathways induced by aging, transient forebrain ischemia, and excessive stimulation of glutamate receptors with excitotoxins. CD has also been shown to mediate apoptosis induced by various stimuli and p53-dependent tumor suppression. To gain more insight into in vivo functions of CD, mice deficient in this enzyme were generated. The mutant animals showed a progressive atrophy of the intestinal mucosa, a massive destruction of lymphoid organs, and a profound accumulation of ceroid lipofuscin, and developed a phenotype resembling neuronal ceroid lipofucinosis, suggesting that CD is essential for proteolysis of proteins regulating cell growth and tissue homeostasis. It has also been shown that CD molecules secreted from human prostate carcinoma cells are responsible for the generation of angiostatin, a potent endogenous inhibitor of angiogenesis, suggesting its contribution to the prevention of tumor growth and angiogenesis-dependent growth of metastases. Interestingly, pro-CD from human breast carcinoma cells showed a significantly lower angiostatin-generating activity than that from prostate carcinoma cells. Since deglycosylated CD molecules from both carcinoma cells showed a low angiostatin-generating activity, this discrepancy appeared to be attributed to the difference in the carbohydrate structures of CD molecules between the two cell types and to contribute to their potency to prevent tumor growth and metastases.     

Expression of Cathepsin D and pS2 in imprint smears of breast carcinoma

athanassiadou p.p., athanassiades p. h., daffaris p., petrakakou e. i., fflerffa ch. i. and kffirkou k. a. (1998) Cytopathology 9, 240–247
Expression of Cathepsin D and pS2 in imprint smears of breast carcinoma
The aim of this study was to add to existing information on the effects of certain tumour markers expressed by breast cancers on tumour malignancy as evidenced by size of primary and occurrence of lymph node invasion. One hundred freshly resected breast cancers were examined by immunocytochemical staining of imprint smears for Cathepsin D and pS2. Oestrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) were tested for by dextrose-coated charcoal (DCC) assay and the results correlated with tumour size, histology and presence or absence of lymph node metastases at the time of surgery using χ² analysis. A significant positive correlation was demonstrated between Cathepsin D positivity and ER, PR and pS2 positivity. In tumours < 2 cm in diameter at surgery a positive correlation was observed between Cathepsin D positivity and the presence of lymph node metastases. The findings support the hypothesis that Cathepsin D may promote early metastasis, possibly by its proteolytic activity.     

失活 ChiA 和 v-cath 基因的重组BmNPV 表达 hGM-CSF

利用 DNA 同源重组技术使家蚕核型多角体病毒的多角体蛋白基因取代 v-cath 、 ChiA 两基因的部分编码区域和共同的启动子区域,获得了 v-cath 、 ChiA 两基因同时失活的、可形成多角体的、并能表达人粒细胞 - 巨噬细胞集落刺激因子的重组病毒 BmNPVpolh+CP－ChiA－GMCSF+. 研究结果显示： v-cath 、 ChiA 两基因的失活不影响病毒的复制及多角体的形成,但感染细胞的存活时间比野生病毒感染的多 2 天,可明显改善外源基因在培养细胞和家蚕中的表达水平;感染 BmNPV polh+CP－ChiA－GMCSF+的家蚕幼虫体表保持正常,无野生病毒感染后引起的破皮流脓现象 .     

New Functional Aspects of Cathepsin D and Cathepsin E

Cathepsin D (CD) and cathepsin E are representative lysosomal and nonlysosomal aspartic proteinases, respectively, and play an important role in the degradation of proteins, the generation of bioactive proteins, antigen processing, etc. Recenty, several lines of evidence have suggested the involvement of these two enzymes in the execution of neuronal death pathways induced by aging, transient forebrain ischemia, and excessive stimulation of glutamate receptors with excitotoxins. CD has also been shown to mediate apoptosis induced by various stimuli and p53-dependent tumor suppression. To gain more insight into in vivo functions of CD, mice deficient in this enzyme were generated. The mutant animals showed a progressive atrophy of the intestinal mucosa, a massive destruction of lymphoid organs, and a profound accumulation of ceroid lipofuscin, and developed a phenotype resembling neuronal ceroid lipofucinosis, suggesting that CD is essential for proteolysis of proteins regulating cell growth and tissue homeostasis. It has also been shown that CD molecules secreted from human prostate carcinoma cells are responsible for the generation of angiostatin, a potent endogenous inhibitor of angiogenesis, suggesting its contribution to the prevention of tumor growth and angiogenesis-dependent growth of metastases. Interestingly, pro-CD from human breast carcinoma cells showed a significantly lower angiostatin-generating activity than that from prostate carcinoma cells. Since deglycosylated CD molecules from both carcinoma cells showed a low angiostatin-generating activity, this discrepancy appeared to be attributed to the difference in the carbohydrate structures of CD molecules between the two cell types and to contribute to their potency to prevent tumor growth and metastases.     

虫生真菌分子致病机理及基因工程改造研究进展

虫生真菌侵染寄主昆虫的复杂过程可分为体表附着、体壁穿透及体内定殖和致死等不同阶段。近年来, 以金龟子绿僵菌(Metarhizium anisopliae)和球孢白僵菌(Beauveria bassiana)为代表的基因功能研究取得了长足的进展, 从不同角度阐明了虫生真菌的分子致病机理; 同时, 基因工程技术的应用为昆虫病原真菌的遗传改良和选育高毒力杀虫菌株开辟了新的途径。对近年来昆虫病原真菌侵染寄主的分子对策及基因工程改造的研究进展进行了综述, 并就进一步研究虫生真菌的毒力基因及功能进行了探讨。