Control of mouse myoblast commitment to terminal differentiation by mitogens

Regulation of the transition of mouse myoblasts from proliferation to terminal differentiation was studied with clonal density cultures of a permanent clonal myoblast cell line. In medium lacking mitogenic activity, mouse myoblasts withdraw from the cell cycle, elaborate muscle-specific gene products, and fuse to form multinucleated myotubes. Addition of a purified mitogen, fibroblast growth factor, to mitogen-depleted medium stimulates continued proliferation and prevents terminal differentiation. When mitogens are removed for increasing durations and then refed, mouse myoblasts irreversibly commit to terminal differentiation: after 2–4 h in the absence of mitogens, myoblasts withdraw from the cell cycle, elaborate muscle-specific gene products, and fuse in the presence of mitogens that have been fed back. Population kinetics of commitment determined with ³H-thymidine labeling and autoradiography suggest the following cell-cycle model for mouse myoblast commitment: (1) if mitogens are present in the extracellular environment of myoblasts in G₁ of the cell cycle, the cells enter S and continue through another cell cycle; (2) if mitogens have been absent for 2 or more hours, cells in G₁ do not enter S; the cells commit to differentiate, permanently withdraw from the cell cycle (will not enter S if mitogens are refed), and they subsequently elaborate acetylcholine receptors and fuse (even if mitogens are refed); (3) cells in other phases of the cell cycle continue to transit the cell cycle in the absence of mitogens until reaching the next G₁. The commitment kinetics and experiments with mitotically synchronized cells suggest that the commitment “decision” is made during G₁. Present results do not, however, exclude commitment of some cells in other phases of the cell cycle.     

A rapid decrease in epidermal growth factor-binding capacity accompanies the terminal differentiation of mouse myoblasts in vitro

Specific mitogens stimulate the proliferation and repress the differentiation of mouse myoblasts (MM14). When mitogens are depleted, MM14 cells cease proliferation, commit to terminal differentiation, and become refractory to growth stimulation. The behavior of mitogen receptors during the transition from a proliferative to a permanently postmitotic state was examined using the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) as a model system. Whereas proliferating myoblasts bound substantial amounts of EGF, their binding capacity declined rapidly upon exposure to low-mitogen medium. The decline became irreversible when a cell differentiated. Within 24 h, less than 5% of the original EGF binding capacity remained. Since the ability to internalize and degrade bound EGF was unaffected, the change presumably reflected a decrease in EGFR availability. Several observations indicated that loss of EGFR following mitogen removal is related to differentiation rather than the result of starvation or cell-cycle arrest. First, the decline is correlated with the absence of a single mitogen (fibroblast growth factor) and is independent of serum concentrations. Second, myoblasts that are either cycling through G1 or arrested at G0, but prevented from differentiating, all bind large amounts of EGF. These findings suggest that specific reduction in mitogen receptors could be part of a mechanism whereby terminally differentiating cells become refractory to mitogenic stimulation.     

Quantal Division and a Postmitotic State in Myoblast Differentiation

The reversible arrest of myoblast differentiation by ethidium bromide (EB) has been used to examine the nature of the transition from the proliferative state to terminal differentiation resulting in fusion into muscle fibers. If EB is introduced at the time that myoblasts are shifted to medium that induces fusion, all apparent cytodifferentiation is suspended. When such EB arrested myoblasts are released from EB inhibition they fuse without reentering the cell cycle. If EB arrested myoblasts are released into proliferation promoting medium rather than medium that induces fusion they neither fuse nor proliferate. In this case they remain quiescent in the proliferating medium for an extended period, however, if these myoblasts are subsequently shifted to medium that induces fusion, they fuse without reentering the cell cycle. Apparently the myoblasts have become postmitotic and competent to fuse into muscle fibers during their initial exposure to fusion inducing medium, even though cytodifferentiation has been blocked. Exposure of these postmitotic fusion competent myoblasts to proliferation promoting medium does not stimulate them to reenter the cell cycle but does prevent fusion into muscle fibers. These results are most consistent with a quantal division model of myoblast differentiation rather than a gradual transition from the proliferative state to a state in which fusion occurs.     

Quantal division and a postmitotic state in myoblast differentiation.

The reversible arrest of myoblast differentiation by ethidium bromide (EB) has been used to examine the nature of the transition from the proliferative state to terminal differentiation resulting in fusion into muscle fibers. If EB is introduced at the time that myoblasts are shifted to medium that induces fusion, all apparent cytodifferentiation is suspended. When such EB arrested myoblasts are released from EB inhibition they fuse without reentering the cell cycle. If EB arrested myoblasts are released into proliferation promoting medium rather than medium that induces fusion they neither fuse nor proliferate. In this case they remain quiescent in the proliferating medium for an extended period, however, if these myoblasts are subsequently shifted to medium that induces fusion, they fuse without reentering the cell cycle. Apparently the myoblasts have become postmitotic and competent to fuse into muscle fibers during their initial exposure to fusion inducing medium, even though cytodifferentiation has been blocked. Exposure of these postmitotic fusion competent myoblasts to proliferation promoting medium does not stimulate them to reenter the cell cycle but does prevent fusion into muscle fibers. These results are most consistent with a quantal division model of myoblast differentiation rather than a gradual transition from the proliferative state to a state in which fusion occurs.     

ACTH-like peptides in postimplantation mouse embryos: a possible role in myoblast proliferation and muscle histogenesis.

ACTH and related peptides are mitogens for certain mesodermal cell types such as adrenocortical cells, T-lymphocytes, and skeletal myoblasts. In order to postulate a possible physiological role for these peptides in skeletal muscle histogenesis, it is necessary to establish whether they are present in muscle forming anlagens of postimplantation mouse embryos. By radioimmunoassay and immunofluorescence with antibodies specific for ACTH, we have detected these peptides in many areas of mouse embryos including neural tube, limb buds, eye lens, and myotomal muscles. During fetal development, immunoreactivity decreased in muscle tissue and appeared in visceral ganglia. Furthermore, primary myotubes or C2C12 myotubes, but not muscle or 3T3 fibroblasts, release significant levels of ACTH immunoreactive peptides into the culture medium. Using a microassay for mitogen production, primary myotubes or C2C12 myotubes, but not other mesodermal cells (with the exception of dermal fibroblasts) were shown to release factors into the medium which support myoblast proliferation. Neutralizing antibodies against ACTH inhibit myoblast but not fibroblast proliferation in a dose-dependent fashion. Based on these results, we propose that myotube-derived mitogens (including ACTH-like peptides) promote the proliferation of surrounding myoblast during muscle histogenesis in vivo.     

Antagonistic effects of laminin and fibronectin on the expression of the myogenic phenotype

Skeletal myoblasts from fetal muscle respond adversely to fibronectin and laminin substrata: when primary mouse skeletal myoblasts are plated onto laminin, more myosin and desmin-positive myoblasts (myo+ cells) develop than on plates coated with fibronectin or collagen. In clonal cultures virtually all cells differentiate into postmitotic, fusion-capable myo + myoblasts on laminin after 3 days. In contrast, on fibronectin, the majority of the cells becomes myosin- and desmin-negative, partially due to proliferation of undifferentiated myoblast precursor cells, partially due to dedifferentiation or modulation of myoblasts into fibroblast-like myo- cells. Loss of the myogenic phenotype on fibronectin was also observed in cloned mouse myoblasts and in cultures of a differentiating mouse satellite cell line, MM14Dy, confirming that the appearance of desmin-negative cells is a result of myoblast modulation and not due simply to overgrowth by muscle fibroblasts. In the light of other effects of laminin on myoblasts, such as the stimulation of migration, differentiation and proliferation, our findings are consistent with the notion that laminin and fibronectin may be counteracting factors in the control of muscle differentiation.     

S100B engages RAGE or bFGF/FGFR1 in myoblasts depending on its own concentration and myoblast density. Implications for muscle regeneration

In high-density myoblast cultures S100B enhances basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) receptor 1 (FGFR1) signaling via binding to bFGF and blocks its canonical receptor, receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE), thereby stimulating proliferation and inhibiting differentiation. Here we show that upon skeletal muscle injury S100B is released from myofibers with maximum release at day 1 post-injury in coincidence with satellite cell activation and the beginning of the myoblast proliferation phase, and declining release thereafter in coincidence with reduced myoblast proliferation and enhanced differentiation. By contrast, levels of released bFGF are remarkably low at day 1 post-injury, peak around day 5 and decline thereafter. We also show that in low-density myoblast cultures S100B binds RAGE, but not bFGF/FGFR1 thereby simultaneously stimulating proliferation via ERK1/2 and activating the myogenic program via p38 MAPK. Clearance of S100B after a 24-h treatment of low-density myoblasts results in enhanced myotube formation compared with controls as a result of increased cell numbers and activated myogenic program, whereas chronic treatment with S100B results in stimulation of proliferation and inhibition of differentiation due to a switch of the initial low-density culture to a high-density culture. However, at relatively high doses, S100B stimulates the mitogenic bFGF/FGFR1 signaling in low-density myoblasts, provided bFGF is present. We propose that S100B is a danger signal released from injured muscles that participates in skeletal muscle regeneration by activating the promyogenic RAGE or the mitogenic bFGF/FGFR1 depending on its own concentration, the absence or presence of bFGF, and myoblast density.     

Separation of mouse crushed muscle extract into distinct mitogenic activities by heparin affinity chromatography

Extracts from gently crushed adult mouse skeletal muscles (CMEs) contain potent myoblast mitogens, and may be used as a model system to investigate myotrophic factors released by adult muscles following injury. CME was separated into four peaks of mitogenic activity by heparin affinity chromatography. The fraction of CME that did not bind to heparin contained transferrin (Tf). Three peaks of mitogenic activity were eluted from the heparin-agarose columns at NaCl concentrations of 0.4 M, 0.9 M, and 2.0 M. A 46 kDa protein that shared antigenicity with the BB isoform of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF-BB) was present in the 0.4 M NaCl eluant. Mitogenic activity in the 2.0 M NaCl peak eluted identically to purified basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), did not act additively to saturating amounts of purified bFGF, and was neutralized by anti-bFGF antibodies. The 0.9 M NaCl eluant acted additively to the combination of three known growth factors for myoblasts, bFGF, insulin-like growth factor I, and epidermal growth factor, to stimulate C2 myoblast proliferation, suggesting this fraction contains a mitogenic activity which does not utilize (and hence compete for) receptors for the known mitogens for myoblasts. Additionally, the 0.9 M NaCl eluant did not stimulate proliferation of fibroblast-like cells derived from muscle tissue. The unbound, 0.4 M NaCl, 0.9 M NaCl, and 2.0 M NaCl eluants from the heparin-agarose column acted additively to one another to stimulate myoblast proliferation. Our data suggest that Tf, PDGF-BB-like molecules, bFGF-like activity, and an uncharacterized heparin-binding myoblast mitogen could be released after muscle injury and act to stimulate satellite cell proliferation. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Growth factor control of skeletal muscle differentiation: commitment to terminal differentiation occurs in G1 phase and is repressed by fibroblast growth factor

Analysis of MM14 mouse myoblasts demonstrates that terminal differentiation is repressed by pure preparations of both acidic and basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF). Basic FGF is approximately 30-fold more potent than acidic FGF and it exhibits half maximal activity in clonal assays at 0.03 ng/ml (2 pM). FGF repression occurs only during the G1 phase of the cell cycle by a mechanism that appears to be independent of ongoing cell proliferation. When exponentially growing myoblasts are deprived of FGF, cells become postmitotic within 2-3 h, express muscle-specific proteins within 6-7 h, and commence fusion within 12-14 h. Although expression of these three terminal differentiation phenotypes occurs at different times, all are initiated by a single regulatory "commitment" event in G1. The entire population commits to terminal differentiation within 12.5 h of FGF removal as all cells complete the cell cycle and move into G1. Differentiation does not require a new round of DNA synthesis. Comparison of MM14 behavior with other myoblast types suggests a general model for skeletal muscle development in which specific growth factors serve the dual role of stimulating myoblast proliferation and directly repressing terminal differentiation.     

Transient production of alpha-smooth muscle actin by skeletal myoblasts during differentiation in culture and following intramuscular implantation

alpha-smooth muscle actin (SMA) is typically not present in post-embryonic skeletal muscle myoblasts or skeletal muscle fibers. However, both primary myoblasts isolated from neonatal mouse muscle tissue, and C2C12, an established myoblast cell line, produced SMA in culture within hours of exposure to differentiation medium. The SMA appeared during the cells' initial elongation, persisted through differentiation and fusion into myotubes, remained abundant in early myotubes, and was occasionally observed in a striated pattern. SMA continued to be present during the initial appearance of sarcomeric actin, but disappeared shortly thereafter leaving only sarcomeric actin in contractile myotubes derived from primary myoblasts. Within one day after implantation of primary myoblasts into mouse skeletal muscle, SMA was observed in the myoblasts; but by 9 days post-implantation, no SMA was detectable in myoblasts or muscle fibers. Thus, both neonatal primary myoblasts and an established myoblast cell line appear to similarly reprise an embryonic developmental program during differentiation in culture as well as differentiation within adult mouse muscles.     

Interactions between Skeletal Muscle Myoblasts and their Extracellular Matrix Revealed by a Serum Free Culture System

Decellularisation of skeletal muscle provides a system to study the interactions of myoblasts with muscle extracellular matrix (ECM). This study describes the efficient decellularisation of quadriceps muscle with the retention of matrix components and the use of this matrix for myoblast proliferation and differentiation under serum free culture conditions. Three decellularisation approaches were examined; the most effective was phospholipase A2 treatment, which removed cellular material while maximizing the retention of ECM components. Decellularised muscle matrices were then solubilized and used as substrates for C2C12 mouse myoblast serum free cultures. The muscle matrix supported myoblast proliferation and differentiation equally as well as collagen and fibronectin. Immunofluorescence analyses revealed that myoblasts seeded on muscle matrix and fibronectin differentiated to form long, well-aligned myotubes, while myoblasts seeded on collagen were less organized. qPCR analyses showed a time dependent increase in genes involved in skeletal muscle differentiation and suggested that muscle-derived matrix may stimulate an increased rate of differentiation compared to collagen and fibronectin. Decellularized whole muscle three-dimensional scaffolds also supported cell adhesion and spreading, with myoblasts aligning along specific tracts of matrix proteins within the scaffolds. Thus, under serum free conditions, intact acellular muscle matrices provided cues to direct myoblast adhesion and migration. In addition, myoblasts were shown to rapidly secrete and organise their own matrix glycoproteins to create a localized ECM microenvironment. This serum free culture system has revealed that the correct muscle ECM facilitates more rapid cell organisation and differentiation than single matrix glycoprotein substrates.     

Enhanced proliferation of human skeletal muscle precursor cells derived from elderly donors cultured in estimated physiological (5%) oxygen

Human skeletal muscle precursor cells (myoblasts) have significant therapeutic potential and are a valuable research tool to study muscle cell biology. Oxygen is a critical factor in the successful culture of myoblasts with low (1–6%) oxygen culture conditions enhancing the proliferation, differentiation, and/or viability of mouse, rat, and bovine myoblasts. The specific effects of low oxygen depend on the myoblast source and oxygen concentration; however, variable oxygen conditions have not been tested in the culture of human myoblasts. In this study, muscle precursor cells were isolated from vastus lateralis muscle biopsies and myoblast cultures were established in 5% oxygen, before being divided into physiological (5%) or standard (20%) oxygen conditions for experimental analysis. Five percent oxygen increased proliferating myoblast numbers, and since low oxygen had no significant effect on myoblast viability, this increase in cell number was attributed to enhanced proliferation. The proportion of cells in the S (DNA synthesis) phase of the cell cycle was increased by 50%, and p21^Cip1 gene and protein expression was decreased in 5 versus 20% oxygen. Unlike in rodent and bovine myoblasts, the increase in myoD, myogenin, creatine kinase, and myosin heavy chain IIa gene expression during differentiation was similar in 5 and 20% oxygen; as was myotube hypertrophy. These data indicate for the first time that low oxygen culture conditions stimulate proliferation, whilst maintaining (but not enhancing) the viability and the differentiation potential of human primary myoblasts and should be considered as optimum conditions for ex-vivo expansion of these cells.     

EGF responsiveness and receptor regulation in normal and differentiation-defective mouse myoblasts

The interrelationship between cell proliferation and terminal myogenic differentiation has been analyzed by studying a differentiation-defective subclone (DD-1) of the permanent mouse myoblast line MM14. Parental MM14 myoblasts withdraw irreversibly from the cell cycle and initiate terminal differentiation when they are deprived of certain mitogens. In contrast, DD-1 cells become quiescent in a mitogen-depleted environment and less than 0.4% of the cells differentiate. When refed with mitogen-rich medium quiescent DD-1 cells resume proliferation. Expression of this differentiation-defective phenotype is apparently coupled to an alteration in mitogen sensitivity: MM14 myoblasts require horse serum plus either chick embryo extract or fibroblast growth factor (FGF) to sustain cell growth: DD-1 variants are responsive to FGF, but also proliferate in response to serum alone or to reduced serum plus epidermal growth factor (EGF). Interestingly, EGF also appears to retard DD-1 cell differentiation in a manner similar to the FGF repression of differentiation in normal myoblasts. Normal and differentiation-defective myoblasts which have been maintained under growth-promoting conditions exhibit similar EGF binding, internalization, and degradation. However, whereas the EGF binding capacity of MM14 myoblasts declines to less than 5% of its initial level within 24 hr of FGF removal, DD-1 variants exhibit an increase in EGF binding when switched to an FGF-depleted medium. The relationship of altered EGF receptor regulation to changes in mitogen sensitivity and differentiation capacity of the DD-1 variant is discussed, and implications for general in vivo processes governing cell proliferation and differentiation are considered.     

Partial characterization of skeletal myoblast mitogens in mouse crushed muscle extract.

We have utilized a model system to investigate myotrophic factors released by normal adult mouse muscles following a crush injury. We found that saline extracts from gently crushed mouse muscles (CME) contain potent mitogenic activities which act on primary newborn mouse myoblast cultures, as well as on mouse C2 cells, a mouse myoblast cell line. We compared the activity of CME on mouse myoblasts with that of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), two growth factors known to be mitogenic for primary myoblasts (Allen, Dodson, and Lutein: Exp. Cell. Res., 152:154-160, 1984; DiMario and Strohman: Differentiation, 39:42-49, 1988; Allen and Boxhorn: J. Cell. Physiol., 138:311-315, 1989; Dodson, Allen, and Hossner: Endocrinology, 117:2357-2363, 1985; Florini and Magri: Am. J. Physiol., 256:C701-C711, 1989). We found that CME could act in an additive fashion to saturating doses of bFGF to increase proliferation in myoblast cultures. Additionally, CME acted additively to the combination of saturating amounts of bFGF and IGF-I on both C2 and primary myoblast cultures. We also examined additivity of CME with the combination of saturating doses of bFGF, IGF-I, transferrin (Tf), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH), and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF). Our data indicate that CME contains Tf, as well as one or more uncharacterized mitogens for myoblasts which are distinct from Tf, the IGFs, bFGF, EGF, PDGF, M-CSF, and ACTH. These uncharacterized mitogens may act independently of known growth factors to stimulate myoblast proliferation, or may act through modulation of known growth factor activities.     

鸡胚与胎鼠的成纤维细胞条件培养液促进成肌细胞增殖和融合的比较

用培养过鸡胚(来亨鸡)或胎鼠(ICR小鼠)肌组织的成纤维细胞的条件培养液,定量地研究它们对胎鼠或鸡胚的成肌细胞的增殖和融合的影响。所得结果如下:(1) 胎鼠的成纤维细胞条件培养液促进胎鼠或鸡胚成肌细胞增殖,分别为对照组的2.65倍,(P<0.001)或2.35倍,(P<0.01);(2) 鸡胚的成纤维细胞条件培养液促进鸡胚或胎鼠的成肌细胞增殖,分别为对照组的2.66倍,(P<0.01)或2.17倍,(P<0.01);(3) 胎鼠的成纤维细胞条件培养液增加胎鼠或鸡胚的成肌细胞的融合率,分别为对照组的1.9倍或2.6倍;鸡胚的成纤维细胞条件培养液只增加鸡胚成肌细胞的融合率,为对照组的2.1倍,但对胎鼠成肌细胞的融合无明显的影响。 实验结果提示:成纤维细胞条件培养液促进成肌细胞的增殖,两种动物间无明显的差异,但在融合上却有一定的种属特异性。     

The amphoterin (HMGB1)/receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) pair modulates myoblast proliferation, apoptosis, adhesiveness, migration, and invasiveness. Functional inactivation of RAGE in L6 myoblasts results in tumor formation in vivo

We reported that RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products), a multiligand receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily expressed in myoblasts, when activated by its ligand amphoterin (HMGB1), stimulates rat L6 myoblast differentiation via a Cdc42-Rac-MKK6-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, and that RAGE expression in skeletal muscle tissue is developmentally regulated. We show here that inhibition of RAGE function via overexpression of a signaling deficient RAGE mutant (RAGE delta cyto) results in increased myoblast proliferation, migration, and invasiveness, and decreased apoptosis and adhesiveness, whereas myoblasts overexpressing RAGE behave the opposite, compared with mock-transfected myoblasts. These effects are accompanied by a decreased induction of the proliferation inhibitor, p21(Waf1), and increased induction of cyclin D1 and extent of Rb, ERK1/2, and JNK phosphorylation in L6/RAGE delta cyto myoblasts, the opposite occurring in L6/RAGE myoblasts. Neutralization of culture medium amphoterin negates effects of RAGE activation, suggesting that amphoterin is the RAGE ligand involved in RAGE-dependent effects in myoblasts. Finally, mice injected with L6/RAGE delta cyto myoblasts develop tumors as opposed to mice injected with L6/RAGE or L6/mock myoblasts that do not. Thus, the amphoterin/RAGE pair stimulates myoblast differentiation by the combined effect of stimulation of differentiation and inhibition of proliferation, and deregulation of RAGE expression in myoblasts might contribute to their neoplastic transformation.     

Inhibition of myoblast differentiation by tumor necrosis factor alpha is mediated by c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 and leukemia inhibitory factor

The proinflammatory cytokine, TNFalpha plays a major role in muscle wasting occurring in chronic diseases and muscular dystrophies. Among its other functions, TNFalpha perturbs muscle regeneration by preventing satellite cell differentiation. In the present study, the role of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), a mediator of TNFalpha, was investigated in differentiating myoblast cell lines. Addition of TNFalpha to C2 myoblasts induced immediate and delayed phases of JNK activity. The delayed phase is associated with myoblast proliferation. Inhibition of JNK activity prevented proliferation and restored differentiation to TNFalpha-treated myoblasts. Studies with cell lines expressing MyoD:ER chimera and lacking JNK1 or JNK2 genes indicate that JNK1 activity mediates the effects of TNFalpha on myoblast proliferation and differentiation. TNFalpha does not induce proliferation or inhibit differentiation of JNK1-null myoblasts. However, differentiation of JNK1-null myoblasts is inhibited when they are grown in conditioned medium derived from cell lines affected by TNFalpha. We investigated the induced synthesis of several candidate growth factors and cytokines following treatment with TNFalpha. Expression of IL-6 and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) was induced by TNFalpha in wild-type and JNK2-null myoblasts. However, LIF expression was not induced by TNFalpha in JNK1-null myoblasts. Addition of LIF to the growth medium of JNK1-null myoblasts prevented their differentiation. Moreover, LIF-neutralizing antibodies added to the medium of C2 myoblasts prevented inhibition of differentiation mediated by TNFalpha. Hence, TNFalpha promotes myoblast proliferation through JNK1 and prevents myoblast differentiation through JNK1-mediated secretion of LIF.     

Ligand-dependent inhibition of myoblast differentiation by overexpression of the type-1 insulin-like growth factor receptor

The insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) have paradoxical effects on skeletal myoblast differentiation. While low concentrations of IGF stimulate myoblast differentiation, high concentrations of IGF induce a progressive decrease in myoblast differentiation. The mechanism of this inhibition is unknown. Using a retroviral expression vector, we developed a subline of mouse P2 mouse myoblasts (P2-LISN) which expressed 7.5 times higher levels of type-1 IGF receptors than control (P2-LNL6) myoblasts, which were infected with a virus lacking the type-1 IGF receptor sequence. Overexpression of the type-1 IGF receptor caused the IGF dose-response curves of stimulation and progressive inhibition of differentiation to shift to the left. Additionally, at high insulin and IGF-I concentrations, complete inhibition of P2-LISN myoblast differentiation occurred. These results suggest that inhibition of differentiation at high ligand concentrations was not due to the primary involvement of other species of receptors for IGF. Type-1 IGF receptor downregulation as a mechanism for inhibition of differentiation was also ruled out since P2-LISN myoblasts constitutively expressed high levels of type-1 IGF receptors. Additionally, inhibition of differentiation at high concentrations of IGF-I was not correlated with overt stimulation of proliferation or with IGF binding protein (IGF-BP) release into the culture medium. These results indicate that the type-1 IGF receptor mediates two conflicting signal pathways in myogenic cells, differentiation-inducing and differentiation-inhibitory, which predominate at different ligand concentrations. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Effects of the somatomedins and insulin on myoblast differentiation in vitro

The effects of insulin and the somatomedins on differentiation of rat myoblasts were investigated in experiments on cells cloned from Yaffe's L6 line. Incubation for 48 hr with either insulin or Temin's multiplication stimulating activity (MSA), a member of the somatomedin family, caused a dramatic increase in myoblast fusion. This stimulation of differentiation is not a simple consequence of the increased cell density resulting from the effects of these hormones on myoblast proliferation, and the increase in fusion is not an effect common to all mitogens (FGF inhibits the process). Other somatomedins (human somatomedin C and insulin-like growth factor I), were as effective as MSA in stimulating differentiation. The somatomedins were active at concentrations in the range of their levels in fetal blood, in contrast to insulin, which was inactive at concentrations below 10^?7, M. Growth hormone (GH) had no effect on muscle differentiation. In serum-free medium MM-1 (in which myoblasts maintain apparently normal morphology and metabolic activity), the very high levels of insulin required to stimulate differentiation could be replaced entirely by physiological levels (1.0 μg/ml) of MSA, further supporting our view that insulin at high concentrations serves primarily as an analogue of the somatomedins in stimulating the growth and development of muscle cells.