Linking membrane physical properties and low temperature tolerance in arthropods

Maintenance of membrane fluidity is of crucial importance in ectotherms experiencing thermal changes. This maintenance has in ectotherms most often been indicated using indirect measures of biochemical changes of phospholipid membranes, which is then assumed to modulate the physico-chemical properties of the membrane. Here, we measure bending rigidity characterizing the membrane flexibility of re-constituted membrane vesicles to provide a more direct link between membrane physical characteristics and low temperature tolerance. Bending rigidity of lipid bilayers was measured in vitro using Giant Unilamellar Vesicles formed from phospholipid extracts of the springtail, Folsomia candida. The bending rigidity of these membranes decreased when exposed to 0.4 vol% ethanol (0.23 mM/L). Springtails exposed to ethanol for 24 h significantly increased their cold shock tolerance. Thus, by chemically inducing decreased membrane rigidity, we have shown a direct link between the physico-chemical properties of the membranes and the capacity to tolerate low temperature in a chill-susceptible arthropod.     

Relation of oxygen consumption to size and temperature in desert arthropods

Abstract. 1. Oxygen consumption was determined for ninety-three taxa of desert-inhabiting arthropods of various life stages over the temperature range 10–40C. Regression analysis of O₂ consumed/individual/h on the mean dry weight of individual adult insects yielded a slope of 0.70 ( r = 0.87) while the same analysis for non-insect arthropods gave a slope of 0.74 ( r - 0.87).
2. Average Q₁₀ for all insects was 2.16 ± 0.66 over the 10–40C temperature range. Q₁₀was not significantly different among orders of arthropods at each 10 temperature interval but decreased significantly with an increase in temperature.
3. Per cent water content ranged from a mean of 60% for Coleoptera to 78% for Lepidoptera larvae and indicated the necessity of using dry weight values in analyses of the relationship between size and oxygen consumption rates.
4. Models are supplied for each taxon to calculate the minimum energy for basic metabolism of field populations per unit time and area.     

Contrasting diversity patterns of epigeic arthropods between grasslands of high and low agronomic potential

Increasing demand for food, fuel and fibre promotes the intensification of land-use, particularly in areas favourable for agricultural production. In less-favourable areas, more wildlife-friendly farming systems are often either abandoned or under pressure of conversion, e.g. for bioenergy production. This raises the question, to which extent areas of different agronomic potential contribute to regional biodiversity. To approach this question on a regional scale, we established our study within a region where sites of high and low agronomic potential (AP) alternate on a small spatial scale. We selected 13 high-AP and 13 low-AP grasslands to quantify the contribution of these classes to the regional diversity of four epigeic arthropod taxa (ants, springtails, functional groups of ground beetles, and spiders). The regional diversity (γ) was partitioned into species richness per site (α-diversity), diversity among sites within one class (β_within-diversity), and diversity between the two classes (β_between-diversity). The β-diversity generally accounted for the largest share of the γ-diversity, with patterns of diversity components being highly taxon- and class-specific. Carnivorous carabids had a higher α-diversity at high-AP sites. Ants, springtails, and cursorial spiders had a higher β_within-diversity in low-AP grasslands. Low-AP sites also harboured many more species that occurred exclusively in one grassland class. We conclude that grasslands that may be unfavourable for agricultural production contributed more to regional diversity of epigeic arthropods than favourable grasslands. We therefore suggest that future agricultural schemes should promote arthropod biodiversity by specifically targeting agri-environment schemes or other wildlife-friendly farming approaches to areas of low agronomic potential, since this bears the greatest potential to preserve a comparatively high species turnover (β-diversity) and in consequence high regional diversity.     

Terrestrial basking sea turtles are responding to spatio-temporal sea surface temperature patterns

Naturalists as early as Darwin observed terrestrial basking in green turtles (Chelonia mydas), but the distribution and environmental influences of this behaviour are poorly understood. Here, we examined 6 years of daily basking surveys in Hawaii and compared them with the phenology of local sea surface temperatures (SST). Data and models indicated basking peaks when SST is coolest, and we found this timeline consistent with bone stress markings. Next, we assessed the decadal SST profiles for the 11 global green turtle populations. Basking generally occurs when winter SST falls below 23°C. From 1990 to 2014, the SST for these populations warmed an average 0.04°C yr⁻¹ (range 0.01–0.09°C yr⁻¹); roughly three times the observed global average over this period. Owing to projected future warming at basking sites, we estimated terrestrial basking in green turtles may cease globally by 2100. To predict and manage for future climate change, we encourage a more detailed understanding for how climate influences organismal biology.     

Selection favours low hsp70 levels in chronically metal‐stressed soil arthropods

Thirty‐eight populations of woodlice (Oniscus asellus, Porcellio scaber) and millipedes (Julus scandinavius) from 28 differently metal‐polluted field sites were analysed for their 70‐kDa stress protein (hsp70) level. Although ANOVA revealed significant dependence of the hsp70 level on the concentrations of water‐soluble lead, cadmium and zinc and the soil pH, each of these parameters accounted for at most 18% of the intersite variability of the stress protein level only. A multivariate model based on multiple regression analysis explained more than 96% of hsp70 variance and revealed both the pollution history of a site (strong metal contamination for more than 70 years) and invertebrate species identity to act as the most important parameters. The model accounted for the observation that most of the populations from long‐term polluted sites exhibited comparatively low stress protein levels in response to their own (contaminated) habitats. In contrast, isopods (O. asellus) from a control site were not able to maintain a low hsp70 level when they were exposed to either an artificial metal cocktail or soil taken from one of the contaminated field sites. They did not acclimatize to the exposure conditions within 3 months. We propose that selection of insensitive phenotypes in long‐term polluted soils has taken place so as to minimize the stress protein level which, in turn, is indicative of high intracellular protein integrity. Long‐term selection for a high hsp70 level to compensate for adverse metal impact was not observed, which suggests that such a strategy may trade off against other fitness consequences. In this context, insensitivity to metal stress involved increased selectivity in food choice and reduced variability in stress response. Multiple regression models showed species‐specificity in those abiotic factors which determined (1) high hsp70 levels in sensitive populations as well as (2) low hsp70 levels in insensitive ones. Therefore, abiotic factors can be assigned to act as the main components of selection: lead and cadmium for J. scandinavius and O. asellus, zinc for P. scaber.     

Endosome-lysosome fusion at low temperature

Based on an initial study (Dunn, W. A., Hubbard, A. L., and Aronson, Jr., N. N. (1980) J. Biol. Chem. 255, 5971-5978), low temperature is often used to selectively inhibit fusion between endosomes and lysosomes. Here we have tried to characterize the nature of this inhibition. In addition to endocytic contents markers, we have used a covalent membrane marker to measure the interaction between endosomes and lysosomes over extended periods of time at low temperature. Mouse macrophage cells (P388D1) and human skin fibroblasts were enzymatically labeled with radioactive galactose to provide a covalent marker for plasma-membrane glycoconjugates. Subsequent endocytic membrane traffic for 24 h at 16 degrees C resulted in a significant transfer of membrane marker, as well as of endocytic contents marker, to high density lysosomes, as observed by subcellular fractionation. The kinetics of this transfer have been analyzed for macrophages using the membrane marker, horseradish peroxidase as fluid-phase, and iodinated acetyl low density lipoprotein as receptor-mediated endocytic contents marker. Transfer to lysosomes occurred only about 6 h after application of the respective marker at 16 degrees C. When transfer to lysosomes was initiated by 15 min preincubation at 37 degrees C, subsequent cooling to 16 degrees C did not inhibit ongoing transfer which continued with the same kinetics as when observed after the lag phase. These results show that low temperature delays an unidentified pre-fusion step, but does not inhibit endosome-lysosome fusion as such.     

Domestic arthropods and their allergens

Allergy prevalence has increased worldwide over the last 25 years along with industrialization and westernized lifestyles. Indoor allergens are primarily responsible for the sensitization and development of atopic diseases. The main indoor allergens are known to be derived from various arthropods which account for up to 80% of the kingdom Animalia. The two classes of arthropods are Insecta, which includes cockroaches, flies, mosquitoes, ants and silverfishes, and Arachnida, which includes mites, spiders, ticks, and scorpions and are the main sources of the allergens. Excreted materials, cast-overs from skin-molting, and dead debris are sources of allergens that can sensitize genetically predisposed individuals and elicit allergic disorders. The use of molecular biology techniques has contributed to the identification and characterization of an ever-increasing number of allergens. However, key determinants and allergen properties that drive allergic responses are poorly understood. The biological characterization of allergens will provide an understanding of the pathogenesis of allergic diseases and contribute to the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.     

Microfluorometric measurement at low temperature.

A cooling chamber for microfluorometric measurement is described, which allows to cool under a microscope a biological sample till 77 K and to measure it with an objective of a numerical aperture 0.6. From first experiments with BAO (5)-stained Tradescantia pollen it can be concluded, that experiments in this range of temperature open new aspects regarding the interpretation of microfluorometric phenomena.     

节肢动物的分类和演化

节肢动物门是动物界中最大的1个门。按新的分类系统,本门分三叶虫亚门(已灭绝)、螯肢亚门、甲壳亚门、六足亚门和多足亚门等5亚门。六足亚门相当于以前分类系统中的昆虫纲(广义的), 是最重要的一类节肢动物;此亚门分原尾纲、弹尾纲、双尾纲和昆虫纲(狭义的)等4纲;昆虫纲分3亚纲30目,包括了前昆虫纲“有翅亚纲”中的各目。为便于读者了解新、旧系统的异同,文中列举前人的代表性系统加以对照。同时,对学术界关于节肢动物的起源和演化的一些新观点予以必要的说明,对现时流行的“泛节肢动物”、“泛甲壳动物”等概念作了简要的介绍。     

Enhancement of virus-induced gene silencing in tomato by low temperature and low humidity

Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) is an attractive reverse-genetics tool for studying gene function in plants. We showed that silencing of a phytoene desaturase (PDS) gene is maintained throughout TRV-PDS-inoculated tomato plants as well as in their flowers and fruit and is enhanced by low temperature (15 degrees C) and low humidity (30%). RT-PCR analysis of the PDS gene revealed a dramatic reduction in the level of PDS mRNA in leaves, flowers and fruits. Silencing of PDS results in the accumulation of phytoene, the desaturase substrate. In addition, the content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll in the leaves of PDS-silenced plants was reduced by more than 90%. We also silenced the LeEIN2 gene by infecting seedlings, and this suppressed fruit ripenning. We conclude that this VIGS approach should facilitate large-scale functional analysis of genes involved in the development and ripening of tomato.     

Anticoagulants in vector arthropods

Arthropod-borne diseases cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Mosquitoes alone may account for as many as three million deaths annually via the transmission of malaria. Because these diseases are transmitted to humans and to other vertebrates as a result of the ability of arthropods to feed on blood, the study of the biochemical mechanisms and adaptations that arthropods have evolved to facilitate hematophagy may provide insight into how this feeding behavior contributes to the transmission of disease. In this review, Kenneth Stark and Anthony James examine the diversity of arthropod anticoagulants and their role in hematophagy and potential implications for parasite transmission.     

Comparative physiological and proteomic response to abrupt low temperature stress between two winter wheat cultivars differing in low temperature tolerance

Abrupt temperature reduction in winter wheat at either autumn seedling stage prior to vernalisation or early spring crown stage can cause severe crop damage and reduce production. Many studies have reported the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying cold acclimation in winter wheat by comparing it with spring wheat. However, processes associated with abrupt temperature reduction in autumn seedling stage prior to vernalisation in winter wheat are less understood. In this study, physiological and molecular responses of winter wheat seedlings to abrupt low temperature (LT) stress were characterised in the relatively LT‐tolerant winter wheat cultivar Shixin 828 by comparing it with the relatively LT‐sensitive cultivar Shiluan 02‐1 using a combination of physiological, proteomics and biochemical approaches. Shixin 828 was tolerant to abrupt LT stress, while Shiluan 02‐1 exhibited high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and leaf cell death. Significant increases in relative abundance of antioxidant‐related proteins were found in Shixin 828 leaves, which correlate with observed higher antioxidant enzyme activity in Shixin 828 compared to Shiluan 02‐1. Proteomics analysis also indicated that carbohydrate metabolism‐related proteins were more abundant in Shiluan 02‐1, correlating with observed accumulation of soluble sugars in Shiluan 02‐1 leaves. Amino acid analysis revealed a strong response to LT stress in wheat leaves. A negative effect of exogenous sucrose on LT tolerance was also found. This study indicates that high ROS scavenging capacity and high abundance of photosynthesis‐related proteins might play a role in winter wheat response to abrupt LT stress. In contrast, excess accumulation of soluble sugars might be disadvantageous for LT tolerance in the wheat cultivar Shiluan 02‐1.     

Photoinhibition at low temperature in chilling-sensitive and -resistant plants

Photoinhibition resulting from exposure at 7°C to a moderate photon flux density (300 micromoles per square meter per second, 400-700 nanometers) for 20 hours was measured in leaves of annual crops differing widely in chilling tolerance. The incidence of photoinhibition, determined as the decrease in the ratio of induced to total chlorophyll fluorescence emission at 693 nanometers (F_v/F_max) measured at 77 Kelvin, was not confined to chilling-sensitive species. The extent of photoinhibition in leaves of all chilling-resistant plants tested (barley [Hordeum vulgare L.], broad bean [Vicia faba L.], pea [Pisum sativum L.], and wheat [Triticum aestivum L.]) was about half of that measured in chilling-sensitive plants (bean [Phaseolus vulgaris L.], cucumber [Cucumis sativus L.], lablab [Lablab purpureus L.], maize [Zea mays L.], pearl millet [Pennisetum typhoides (Burm. f.) Stapf & Hubbard], pigeon pea [Cajanus cajun (L.) Millsp.], sesame [Sesamum indicum L.], sorghum [Sorghum bicolor L. Moench], and tomato [Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.]). Rice (Oryza sativa L.) leaves of the indica type were more susceptible to photoinhibition at 7°C than leaves of the japonica type. Photoinhibition was dependent both on temperature and light, increasing nonlinearly with decreasing temperature and linearly with increasing light intensity. In contrast to photoinhibition during chilling, large differences, up to 166-fold, were found in the relative susceptibility of the different species to chilling injury in the dark. It was concluded that chilling temperatures increased the likelihood of photoinhibition in leaves of both chilling-sensitive and -resistant plants. Further, while the photoinhibition during chilling generally occurred more rapidly in chilling-sensitive plants, this was not related directly to chilling sensitivity.     

极端环境中的低温微生物及其应用

在地球这个大的生态系统中存着着广泛的低温环境,低温微生物就生活在这些特殊的生态环境中,对其进行研究既可丰富生物多样性的研究内容,还可以利用其特殊的基因及产物服务于人类,也是利用生物资源的重要方面,简述了低温微生物的生态分布,适用低温的分子机制及其环境保护、食品、医药等从个领域中的开发应用前景。     

Sucrose phosphate synthase and sucrose accumulation at low temperature

The influence of growth temperature on the free sugar and sucrose phosphate synthase content and activity of spinach (Spinacia oleracea) leaf tissue was studied. When plants were grown at 25°C for 3 weeks and then transferred to a constant 5°C, sucrose, glucose, and fructose accumulated to high levels during a 14-d period. Predawn sugar levels increased from 14- to 20-fold over the levels present at the outset of the low-temperature treatment. Sucrose was the most abundant free sugar before, during, and after exposure to 5°C. Leaf sucrose phosphate synthase activity was significantly increased by the low-temperature treatment, whereas sucrose synthase and invertases were not. Synthesis of the sucrose phosphate synthase subunit was increased during and after low-temperature exposure and paralleled an increase in the steady-state level of the subunit. The increases in sucrose and its primary biosynthetic enzyme, sucrose phosphate synthase, are discussed in relation to adjustment of metabolism to low nonfreezing temperature and freezing stress tolerance.