Steric restrictions on the binding of large metal ions to serum transferrin

Apotransferrin in 0.1 M N-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazine-N'-2-ethanesulfonic acid at 25 degrees C and pH 7.4 was titrated with acidic solutions of Lu3+, Tb3+, and Eu3+. Metal binding at the two specific metal-binding sites of transferrin was followed from changes in the difference UV spectra at 245 nm. The binding of Tb3+ was also followed from changes in the fluorescence emission spectrum at 549 nm. Apotransferrin was titrated with solutions containing varying ratios of the metal ion and the competitive chelating agent nitrilotriacetic acid, and metal-transferrin binding constants were calculated by nonlinear least-squares fits of the absorbance as a function of titrant added. The sequential carbonate-independent equilibrium constants for the binding of two metal ions are log KM1 = 11.08 and log KM2 = 7.93 for Lu3+, log KM1 = 11.20 and log KM2 = 7.61 for Tb3+, and log KM1 = 9.66 and log KM2 = 7.27 for Eu3+. Titrations of both C-terminal and N-terminal monoferric transferrins indicate that all of these metal ions bind more strongly to the C-terminal binding site. The trend in log K values as a function of the lanthanide ionic radius has been evaluated both by plots of log K versus the metal ion charge/radius ratio and by linear free-energy relationships in which binding constants for complexes of the larger lanthanides are plotted versus the binding constants for complexes with the smallest lanthanide, Lu3+. Both methods indicate that there is a sharp drop in the binding constants for the C-terminal binding site for metals larger than Tb3+. This decrease is attributed to a steric hindrance to the binding of the larger cations. The steric effect is not as strong for metal binding at the N-terminal site. As a result, the selectivity for binding to the C-terminal site, which is quite high for the smaller lanthanides, drops sharply on going from Tb3+ to Nd3+.     

Calcium binding proteins: optical stopped-flow and proton nuclear magnetic resonance studies of the binding of the lanthanide series of metal ions to parvalbumin

Optical stopped-flow techniques have been used to determine the dissociation rate constants (koff) for the lanthanide(III) ions from carp (pI 4.25) parvalbumin. For most of the 13 different lanthanides studied, the release kinetics were diphasic, composed of both a fast phase (whose rate varied across the series, La3+ leads to Lu3+, between the limits -1.2 less than or equal to log kFAST less than or equal to -0.7) and a slower phase (whose rate varied across the series, La3+ leads to Lu3+, between the limits -1.2 greater than or equal to log kSLOW greater than or equal to -2.9). In addition, the La3+- and Lu3+-induced changes in the 270-MHz proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum of parvalbumin were used to calculate the dissociation constants for these specific lanthanides from the two high-affinity Ca2+ binding sites. The KD for one site appears to remain constant across the lanthanide series, determined to be 4.8 X 10(-11) M for both La3+ and Lu3+. The other site, however, is evidently quite sensitive to the nature of the bound Ln3+ ion and shows a strong preference for La3+ (KD,La = 2.0 X 10(-11) M; KD,Lu = 3.6 X 10(-10) M). We conclude from these observations that reports of nearly indistinguishable CD/EF binding site affinities for parvalbumin complexes of the middle-weight lanthanides (i.e., Eu3+, Gd3+, and Tb3+) are quite reasonable in view of the crossover in relative CD/EF site affinities across the lanthanide series.     

Characterization of lanthanides as competitors of Na+ and K+ in occlusion sites of renal (Na+,K+)-ATPase.

Lanthanides are useful probes in Ca2+ binding proteins, including sarcoplasmic reticulum (Ca2+,Mg2+)-ATPase. Here, we report that lanthanides compete with Rb+ and Na+ for occlusion in renal (Na+,K+)-ATPase. The lanthanides appear to bind at a single site and act as competitive antagonists, without themselves becoming occluded. All lanthanides tested are effective with the order of potencies Pr greater than Nd greater than La greater than Eu greater than Tb greater than Ho greater than Er, but differences are small. The presence of Mg2+ ions does not affect competition of La3+ with Na+ or K+ suggesting that the effects are not exerted via divalent metal sites. Lanthanides compete with Rb+ and Na+ in membranes digested with trypsin so as to produce 19-kDa and smaller fragments of the alpha-chain (Karlish, S.J.D., Goldshleger, R., and Stein, W. D. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87, 4566-4570), also suggestive of a direct interaction of lanthanides with Na+ and K+ sites. Effects of lanthanides on conformational changes of fluorescein-labeled (Na+,K+)-ATPase are Na(+)-like. They stabilize the E1 state and compete with K+ ions. The Ki for La3+ is 0.445 microM. The apparent affinity in fluorescence assays is proportional to enzyme concentration (Ki = 32.4*[protein] + 0.445 microM La3+), suggesting that lanthanides are also bound nonspecifically (possibly to phospholipids). Direct assays confirm that Tb3+ binding is nonspecific. Measurements of the rate of various conformational transitions show that the rate of E2(K+)----E1(X) (X = Na+ or La3+) is significantly inhibited by La3+ compared to Na+. La3+ ions also slightly accelerate the rate of the E1----E2(K+) conformational transition. The dissociation rate of La3+ has been measured by monitoring the rate of E1(La3+)----E2(K+). It is 1.741 s-1 at 25 degrees C. Based on this value, it is unlikely that La3+ ions are stably occluded, consistent with the conclusion from occlusion experiments. In the future, lanthanides bound to monovalent cation sites with high affinity may become useful probes for location and characterization of sites, although it will be necessary to take into account the large amount of nonspecific binding.     

The asymmetric effect of lanthanides on Na+-gradient-dependent Ca2+ transport in synaptic plasma membrane vesicles

Lanthanides (La3+, Pr3+ and Tb3+) inhibit Na+-gradient-dependent Ca2+ influx into synaptic plasma membrane vesicles. 50% inhibition is obtained by 7 microM lanthanide concentration. The inhibition of the Na+-gradient-dependent Ca2+ uptake exhibits competitive kinetic behaviour. The apparent Km of the Ca2+ influx is increased from 50 microM in the absence of lanthanides to 118 microM in the presence of La3+, 170 microM in the presence of Pr3+ and 130 microM in the presence of Tb3+. The maximal reaction velocity is not altered (8.35 nmol Ca2+ transported per mg protein per min in the absence of lanthanides and 8.16 nmol/mg per min in the presence of lanthanides). Lanthanides also inhibited Na+-gradient-dependent Ca2+ efflux from synaptic plasma membrane vesicles that were preloaded with Ca2+ in a Na+-gradient-dependent manner. Introduction of La3+ into the interior of the synaptic plasma membrane vesicles by rapid freezing of the vesicles in liquid N2 and slow thawing had no effect on either Na+-gradient-dependent Ca2+ influx or efflux. Synaptic plasma membrane vesicles can be preloaded with Ca2+ also in an ATP-dependent manner. This form of Ca2+ uptake is also inhibited by La3+ though at higher concentrations than the Na+-gradient-dependent Ca2+ uptake. Na+-gradient-dependent efflux from synaptic plasma membrane vesicles preloaded in an ATP-dependent fashion ('inside-out' vesicles) unlike efflux from synaptic plasma membrane vesicles preloaded in a Na+-gradient-dependent manner was not inhibited by La3+. These findings suggest that the inhibition by La3+ is manifested asymmetrically on both sides of the synaptic plasma membrane. Lanthanides are probably not transported via the Na+-Ca2+ exchanger since Tb3+ entry measured by fluorescence of Tb3+-dipicolinic acid complex formation occurred at high Tb3+ concentrations only (1.5 mM or above) and was not Na+-gradient dependent.     

A flow-dialysis method for obtaining relative measures of association constants in calmodulin-metal-ion systems.

A flow-dialysis apparatus suitable for the study of high-affinity metal-binding proteins has been utilized to study calmodulin-metal exchange as a measure of relative calmodulin-metal association constants. Calmodulin labelled with radioactive 153Gd was dialysed against buffer containing various competing metal ions. The rate of label exchange was monitored by a gamma-ray scintillation detector. Competing metals used were Ca2+ and Cd2+, and the lanthanides Gd3+, Eu3+, La3+ and Lu3+. All exchange processes were first-order, and two categories of metal were found: Ca2+ and Cd2+ in one, the lanthanides comprising the other. In addition calmodulin-metal complexes with radioactive 109Cd and 45Ca released the bound label without any competing metal being added to the buffer. The kinetics of this metal loss can be described by two consecutive first-order processes, and the fraction of label associated with each rate can be determined. Studies of phosphodiesterase activation by calmodulin show Cd2+ and calmodulin to cause 80% of the maximum activation found when Ca2+ and calmodulin are used.     

Distances between the functional sites of the (Ca2+ + Mg2+)-ATPase of sarcoplasmic reticulum

Luminescence energy transfer measurements have been used to determine the distances between the two high affinity Ca2+ binding-transport sites of the (Ca2+ + Mg2+)-ATPase of skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum. The lanthanide Tb3+ situated at one high affinity Ca2+ site was used as the transfer donor, and acceptors at the other Ca2+ site were the lanthanides Nd3+, Pr3+, Ho3+, or Er3+. Terbium bound to the enzyme was excited directly with a pulsed dye laser. Analysis of the changes in the terbium luminescence lifetime due to the presence of the acceptor indicates that the distance between the Ca2+ sites is 10.7 A. The distance between the Ca2+ sites and the nucleotide-binding catalytic site was determined using Tb3+ at the Ca2+ sites and either trinitrophenyl nucleotides (TNP-N) or fluorescein 5-isothiocyanate (FITC) in the catalytic site as energy acceptors. The R0 values for the Tb-acceptor pairs are approximately 30 and approximately 40 A for TNP-N and FITC, respectively. The distance between Tb3+ at the Ca2+ sites and TNP-ATP at the nucleotide site is approximately 35 A and that between the Ca2+ sites and the FITC labeling site is approximately 47 A. Considerations of the molecular dimensions of the ATPase polypeptide indicate that while the two Ca2+ sites are close to each other, the Ca2+ sites and the nucleotide site are quite remote in the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme.     

Characterization of a Ca2+-dependent guanylate cyclase in the excitable ciliary membrane from Paramecium

The membraneous guanylate cyclase of cilia from Paramecium tetraurelia used MgGTP and MnGTP as substrate with Michaelis constants for GTP of 71.5 microM and 36 microM, respectively. A linear Arrhenius plot indicated that a single enzyme entity exists not sensitive to possible phase transitions of membrane lipids. Guanylate cyclase is activated by low concentrations (less than 100 microM) and inhibited by high concentrations (greater than 100 microM) of calcium, half-maximal effects were obtained with 8 microM and 500 microM Ca2+, respectively. Only strontium ions displayed partial activating and inhibiting potency, all other divalent cations tested, Ba2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Mn2+, Sn2+ and Ni2+ had no effect on guanylate cyclase activity. Ca2+ activation increased V; Km remained identical. The Ca2+ stimulated activity was not inhibited by trifluoperazine, tentatively suggesting that the stimulation may not be mediated by calmodulin. Ca2 inhibition was due to a single binding site of Ca2+ at the guanylate cyclase as evidence by a Hill coefficient h = -1 and was noncompetitive. The lanthanides La3+, Ce3+ and Tb3+ were powerful inhibitors of guanylate cyclase, with La3+ the half-maximal effect was obtained with 0.6 microM, it was kinetically a mixed-type inhibition. La3+ and CA2+ competed for the same binding site on the guanylate cyclase as determined by detailed kinetic analysis. Addition of EDTA reversed the activation and inhibition by Ca2+ and the inhibition by La3+. It is discussed that guanylate cyclase may be the initial target enzyme in the cilia for the calcium transient of the calcium-potassium action potential of Paramecium.     

Lanthanide-stimulated glucose and proline transport across rabbit intestinal brush-border membranes

Trivalent cations of the lanthanide series (La3+----Yb3+) stimulated uptake of proline or glucose in rabbit small intestinal brush-border membrane vesicles. The lanthanides stimulated uptake to an extent greater than Al3+, choline, and in many cases, Na+. A time-course of Er3+-stimulated glucose uptake gave initial rates and overshoots greater than Na+ stimulation. The best activators were Sm3+, Eu3+ and Tm3+, which stimulated proline initial uptakes by 400-600%, and stimulated glucose uptake by 120-150%, compared to Na+. The best lanthanide cotransport activators possessed high third ionization potentials.     

Tb3+ and Ca2+ binding to phosphatidylcholine. A study comparing data from optical, NMR, and infrared spectroscopies.

The paramagnetic and luminescent lanthanides are unique probes of cation-phospholipid interactions. Their spectroscopic properties provide the means to characterize and monitor complexes formed with lipids in ways not possible with biochemically more interesting cations, such as Ca2+. In this work, Tb3+-phosphatidylcholine complexes are described using the luminescence properties of Tb3+, the effect of its paramagnetism on the 31P NMR and 13C NMR spectra of the lipid, and changes in the infrared spectrum of the lipid induced by the cation. There are two Tb3+-phosphatidylcholine complexes with very different coordination environments, as evidenced by changes in the optical excitation spectrum of the lanthanide. The NMR experiments indicate that the two complexes differ in the number of phosphate groups directly coordinating Tb3+. Tb3+ binding induces changes in the phosphodiester infrared bands that are most consistent with bidentate chelation of Tb3+ by each phosphate, whereas Ca2+-induced changes are more consistent with monodentate coordination. The significance of this discrepancy is discussed.     

An equilibrium study of metal ion binding to human plasma coagulation factor XIII.

1. The binding of Ca2+ to plasma coagulation Factor XIII from man and from cow caused a small decrease in the intrinsic fluorescence of the protein with a dissociation constant of 0.1 mM. A similar decrease was observed with the thrombin-activated Factors (Factors XIIa). The decrease in protein fluorescence was also caused by both Ni2+ and Mn2+ but not by Mg2+. 2. 45Ca2+ binding was directly demonstrated by equilibrium dialysis. Ca2+ at 0.2 mM bound to Factor XIII (a2b2) and Factor XIIIa (a'2b2) but not to isolated b2-protein. A tight-binding site for Ca2+ is associated with the a-subunits. 3. The Ca2+ essential for the enzyme activity of Factor XIII from man, pig and cow can be replaced by Ni2+, Cu2+, La3+, Mn2+, Fe3+, Y3+, Co2+, Sr2+ or Tb3+, but not by Mg2+.     

Terbium as a luminescent probe of metal-binding sites in protein kinase C

In the present report, we demonstrate that Tb3+ binds to protein kinase C and serves as a luminescent reporter of certain cationic metal-binding sites. Tb3+ titration of 50 nM protein kinase C results in a 20-fold enhancement of Tb3+ luminescence which is half-maximal at 12 microM Tb3+. A Kd of approximately 145 nM was determined for Tb3+ binding to the enzyme. The excitation spectrum of bound Tb3+ exhibits a peak at 280 nm characteristic of energy transfer from protein tryptophan or tyrosine residues. The luminescence of this complex can be markedly decreased by other metals, including Pb2+ (IC50 = 25 microM), La3+ (IC50 = 50 microM), Hg2+ (IC50 = 300 microM), Ca2+ (IC50 = 6 mM), and Zn2+ (IC50 greater than 10 mM), and chelation of Tb3+ by 2 mM EGTA. Tb3+ binding to protein kinase C is correlated with its inhibition of protein kinase activity (IC50 = 8 microM), r = 0.99) and phorbol ester binding (IC50 = 15 microM, r = 0.98). Tb3+ inhibition of protein kinase C activity cannot be overcome by excess Ca2+, but can be partially overcome with excess phosphatidylserine or by chelation of Tb3+ with EGTA. Tb3+ noncompetitively inhibits phorbol ester binding by decreasing the maximal extent of binding without significantly altering binding affinity. The results suggest that the Tb3(+)-binding site is at or allosterically related to the enzyme's phosphatidylserine-binding site, but is distinct from the phorbol ester-binding domain and the Ca2(+)-binding site that regulates enzyme activity.     

Lanthanide ions and Cd2+ are able to substitute for Ca2+ in regulating phosphorylase kinase

Trivalent lanthanide ions and Cd2+ were found to mimic effectively the stimulatory action of Ca2+ on rabbit muscle phosphorylase kinase. In the range of concentrations tested, Cd2+ and lanthanides (Tb3+, Gd3+, Pr3+, Ce3+) could substitute for Ca2+ in activating the enzyme to about 60% and 70% respectively of the maximal level seen with Ca2+, at pH 8.2. The effect induced by Cd2+ was biphasic (stimulation followed by inhibition with increasing metal cation concentration). Similar results were obtained at pH 6.8. Cd2+ and Tb3+ were also able to replace Ca2+ required for the stimulation of phosphorylase kinase activity at pH 8.2 by exogenous calmodulin. Maximal stimulation induced by calmodulin in presence of Cd2+ was significantly higher than that in presence of Ca2+ or Tb3+.     

Toxicological and cytophysiological aspects of lanthanides action

Lanthanides, also called rare-earth elements, are an interesting group of 15 chemically active, mainly trivalent, f-electronic, silvery-white metals. In fact, lanthanides are not as rare as the name implies, except for promethium, a radioactive artificial element not found in nature. The mean concentrations of lanthanides in the earth's crust are comparable to those of life-important elements like iodine, cobalt and selenium. Many lanthanide compounds show particular magnetic, catalytic and optic properties, and that is why their technical applications are so extensive. Numerous industrial sources enable lanthanides to penetrate into the human body and therefore detailed toxicological studies of these metals are necessary. In the liver, gadolinium selectively inhibits secretion by Kupffer cells and it decreases cytochrome P450 activity in hepatocytes, thereby protecting liver cells against toxic products of xenobiotic biotransformation. Praseodymium ion (Pr3+) produces the same protective effect in liver tissue cultures. Cytophysiological effects of lanthanides appear to result from the similarity of their cationic radii to the size of Ca2+ ions. Trivalent lanthanide ions, especially La3+ and Gd3+, block different calcium channels in human and animal cells. Lanthanides can affect numerous enzymes: Dy3+ and La3+ block Ca2+-ATPase and Mg2+-ATPase, while Eu3+ and Tb3+ inhibit calcineurin. In neurons, lanthanide ions regulate the transport and release of synaptic transmitters and block some membrane receptors, e.g. GABA and glutamate receptors. It is likely that lanthanides significantly and uniquely affect biochemical pathways, thus altering physiological processes in the tissues of humans and animals.     

Lanthanide-binding properties of rat oncomodulin

Oncomodulin, the parvalbumin-like calcium-binding protein frequently expressed in tumor tissue, was isolated from Morris hepatoma 5123tc and studied using the luminescent lanthanide ions, Eu3+ and Tb3+. Titrations of the apoprotein - whether monitored by indirect excitation of bound Tb3+, by direct laser excitation of bound Eu3+, or by quenching of the intrinsic tyrosine fluorescence - all indicated the presence of two high-affinity binding sites for lanthanide ions, as in parvalbumin. Moreover, the appearance of the Eu3+ 7F0----5D0 excitation spectrum of Eu2-oncomodulin was found to be highly pH-dependent, as previously observed with parvalbumin. At pH 5.0, it consists of a single peak centered at 5796 A, having a linewidth of approximately 6 A. At higher pH values, this spectrum is replaced by a broader, more symmetric peak at 5782 A. Oncomodulin, however, was found to differ from parvalbumin in at least one important respect: In contrast to the muscle-associated protein, the affinities of the CD site in oncomodulation for Tb3+ and Ca2+ were found to be rather similar, with KCa/KTb approximately equal to 11 +/- 2.     

Effects of fifteen rare-earth metals on Ca2+ influx in tobacco cells

Effects of naturally existing rare-earth metals (REMs; atomic numbers, 39, 57-60, 62-71; Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu), added as chloride salts, on Ca2+ influx induced by two different stimuli, namely hypoosmotic shock and hydrogen peroxide, were examined in a suspension-cultured transgenic cell line of BY-2 tobacco cells expressing aequorin, a Ca(2+)-sensitive luminescent protein in cytosol. Most REM salts used here showed inhibitory effect against Ca2+ influx. Especially NdCl3, SmCl3, EuCl3, GdCl3 and TbCl3 showed the most robust inhibitory action. In contrast, LuCl3, YbCl3, ErCl3 and YCl3 were shown to be poor inhibitors of Ca2+ influx. Since REMs tested here form a sequential range of ionic radii from 86.1 to 103.2 pm and the optimal range of ionic radii required for blocking the flux of Ca2+ was determined for each stimulus. The hydrogen peroxide-induced Ca2+ influx was optimally blocked by REMs with a broad range of ionic radii (93.8-101 pm) which is slightly smaller than or similar to that of Ca2+ (100 pm), while the hypoosmotically induced flux of Ca2+ was inhibited optimally by few REMs with a narrower range of relatively smaller ionic radii around that of Gd3+ (93.8 pm) a well known inhibitor of stretch-activated channels. Possible applications of such series of channel blockers in elucidation of plant signal transduction pathways are encouraged.     

Metal ion binding sites of bacteriorhodopsin. Laser-induced lanthanide luminescence study

Laser-excited luminescence lifetimes of lanthanide ions bound to bacteriorhodopsin have been measured in deionized membranes. The luminescence titration curve, as well as the binding curve of apomembrane (retinal-free) with Eu3+, has shown that the removal of the retinal does not significantly affect the affinity of Eu3+ for the two high affinity sites of bacteriorhodopsin. The D2O effects on decay rate constants indicate that Eu3+ bound to the high affinity sites of native membrane or apomembrane is coordinated by about six ligands in the first coordination sphere. Tb3+ is shown to be coordinated by four ligands. The data indicate that metal ions bind to the protein with a specific geometry. From intermetal energy transfer experiments using Eu3+-Pr3+, Tb3+-Ho3+, and Tb3+-Er3+, the distance between the two high affinity sites is estimated to be 7-8 A.     

Luminescence study of G-quadruplex formation in the presence of Tb3+ ion

The interactions of Tb3+ with the quadruplex-forming oligonucleotide bearing human telomeric repeat sequence d(G(3)T(2)AG(3)T(2)AG(3)T(2)AG(3)), (htel21), have been studied using luminescence spectroscopy and circular dichroism (CD). Enhanced luminescence of Tb3+, resulting from energy transfer from guanines, indicated encapsulation of Tb3+ ion in the central cavity of quadruplex core. The ability of lanthanide ions (Eu3+ and Tb3+) to mediate formation of quadruplex structure has been further evidenced by the fluorescence energy transfer measurements with the use of oligonucleotide probe labeled with fluorescein and rhodamine FRET partners, FAM-htel21-TAMRA. The CD spectra revealed that Tb3+/htel21 quadruplex possesses antiparallel strand orientation, similarly as sodium quadruplex. Tb3+ binding equilibria have been investigated in the absence and the presence of competing metal cations. At low Tb3+ concentration (8 microM) Tb3+/htel21 quadruplex stability is very high (5 x 10(6) M(-1)) and stoichiometry of 5-7 Tb3+ ions per one quadruplex molecule is observed. Luminescence and CD titration experiments suggested that the cavity of quadruplex accommodates two Tb3+ ions and the remaining Tb3+ ions bind probably to TTA loops of quadruplex. Higher concentration of Tb3+ (above 10 microM) results in the excessive binding of Tb3+ ions that finally destabilizes quadruplex, which undergoes transformation into differently organized assemblies. Such assemblies (probably possessing multiple positive charge) exhibit kinetic stability, which is manifested by a very slow kinetics of displacement of Tb3+ ion by competing cations (Li+, Na+, K+).     

Binding of lanthanum and gadolinium ions to concanavalin A studied calorimetrically at 25 degrees C

The interaction between Concanavalin A (ConA) and the lanthanide ions La3+ and Gd3+ has been studied calorimetrically at 25 degrees C. The measurements were carried out at a pH of 4.5, where the protein exists prevailingly as a dimer. Calorimetry allows the direct determination of the binding enthalpy and the evaluation of both the apparent association constant, and the apparent free energy and entropy. Three groups of data were collected. The first concerns the interaction of the 'native' protein, i.e., fully metallized with Mn2+ and Ca2+, with the lanthanides. The second concerns the interaction of the completely demetallized protein with La3+ and Gd3+. Finally, the affinity of each complex was tested for the specific sugar alpha-methylmannopyranoside. The analysis of the thermodynamic parameters obtained, led to the following conclusions: 1) a specific site, named S3, exists on the protein for the lanthanides, distinct from the S1 site of the transition metal and from the S2 site, specific for calcium. There is only one S3 site per protomer when the protein has Mn2+ in S1 and Ca2+ in S2. Moreover, there is no appreciable competition for S1 and S2 from the lanthanides. The 'native' protein, metallized with La3+ or Gd3+, is a fully functional protein. 2) The demetallized protein (ApoCon A) has at least two sites per protomer for the lanthanides. The hypothesis is that, besides the S3 site, the lanthanides, in the absence of Mn2+, can also occupy the S1, but not the S2, site. The protein metallized only with gadolinium ion is completely inactive toward the interaction with the mannoside. The same happens when, along with gadolinium, only calcium or manganese is present. Hence, in the absence of the transition metal in S1 or of calcium in S2, the protein is not in the conformation suitable to interact with its specific substrate.     

Studies of activating and nonactivating metal ion binding to yeast enolase

Measurements of binding of certain divalent cations to yeast apoenolase were made using a pH-meter, chromatography, a divalent cation electrode, and ultrafiltration. The binding of the activating metal ions Mg2+ and Co2+ and the nonactivator Ca2+ were studied as functions of the presence or absence of substrate/product, phosphate, and fluoride or level of Tb3+. The data suggest phosphate and fluoride increase Mg2+ binding but not Ca2+ binding. Substrate/product appears to increase Ca2+ binding as well as that of Mg2+ and Co2+. In the presence of substrate, Co2+ binding was 5-6 mol/mol dimer. In the absence of substrate/product, Tb3+ reduced Co2+ binding from 4 mol/mol to 2. These data are interpreted in terms of binding to "conformational," "catalytic" (substrate/product dependent), and "inhibitory" sites. Measurements of Tb3+ fluorescence quenching by Co2+ suggested that the distance between "conformational" sites on the two subunits was large, while the distance between "conformational" and "inhibitory" sites was ca. 17 +/- 4 A. Potentiometric titrations of apoenzyme with Ca2+ and Mg2+ showed that the metal ions produced the same proton release in the presence or absence of substrate/product. If phosphate and fluoride were present, then more protons were released if Ca2+ was the titrant rather than Mg2+, suggesting a difference in ionization state in the complex with the activating metal. Electron paramagnetic resonance studies of Co2+ binding to the various sites in the enzyme are presented. The Co2+ bound to all three sites appears to be high spin, consistent with a preponderance of oxyligands in an octahedral environment. Substrate, citrate, and a strongly binding substrate analogue strongly enhance the hyperfine structure of conformational Co2+. This is interpreted as the result of a change in interaction of an axial ligand to conformational Co2+ produced by carbon-3 of substrate or analogue.     

The effect of di- and trivalent metal ions on the binding of [3H-Tyr1, D-Ala2, D-Leu5] enkephalin to opiate receptors from the rat brain

The influence of Ca2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Sr2+, La3+, Nd3+, Sm3+, Eu3+, and Gd3+ ions on the binding of labeled, stable enkephalin analogue, [3H-Tyr1, D-Ala2, D-Leu5]enkephalin, to opiate receptors of the rat brain membrane preparations has been investigated. The formation of the complex can be described by a scheme involving at least two independent binding sites. The high affinity site does not discriminate the divalent and trivalent metal ions: all examined cations enhanced the enkephalin affinity for this site. The ligand binding to the low affinity site is potentiated only by Mn2+, Mg2+, and lathanoides. The maximal concentration of the binding sites of the above two types is not affected by the cations. The increase in the ionic strength of the solution entails a decrease in the affinity of the ligand for the high affinity binding site. It is shown that the effect of both di- and trivalent metal cations on the [3H-Tyr1, D-Ala2, D-Leu3] enkephalin binding is mediated through one cation attachment site on the respective enkephalin receptor.