Characterization of seven genes affecting Caenorhabditis elegans hindgut development.

We have identified and characterized 12 mutations in seven genes that affect the development of the Caenorhabditis elegans hindgut. We find that the mutations can disrupt the postembryonic development of the male-specific blast cells within the hindgut, the hindgut morphology in both males and hermaphrodites, and in some cases, the expression of a hindgut marker in hermaphrodite animals. Mutations in several of the genes also affect viability. On the basis of their mutant phenotypes, we propose that the genes fall into four distinct classes: (1) egl-5 is required for regional identity of the tail; (2) sem-4 is required for a variety of ectodermal and mesodermal cell types, including cells in the hindgut; (3) two genes, lin-49 and lin-59, affect development of many cells, including hindgut; and (4) three genes, mab-9, egl-38, and lin-48, are required for patterning fates within the hindgut, making certain hindgut cells different from others. We also describe a new allele of the Pax gene egl-38 that is temperature sensitive and affects the conserved beta-hairpin of the EGL-38 paired domain. Our results suggest that a combination of different factors contribute to normal C. elegans hindgut development.     

Molecular characterization the <Emphasis Type="Italic">YABBY</Emphasis> gene family in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oryza sativa</Emphasis> and expression analysis of <Emphasis Type="Italic">OsYABBY1</Emphasis>

Members of the YABBY gene family have a general role that promotes abaxial cell fate in a model eudicot, Arabidopsis thaliana. To understand the function of YABBY genes in monocots, we have isolated all YABBY genes in Oryza sativa (rice), and revealed the spatial and temporal expression pattern of one of these genes, OsYABBY1. In rice, eight YABBY genes constitute a small gene family and are classified into four groups according to sequence similarity, exon-intron structure, and organ-specific expression patterns. OsYABBY1 shows unique spatial expression patterns that have not previously been reported for other YABBY genes, so far. OsYABBY1 is expressed in putative precursor cells of both the mestome sheath in the large vascular bundle and the abaxial sclerenchyma in the leaves. In the flower, OsYABBY1 is specifically expressed in the palea and lemma from their inception, and is confined to several cell layers of these organs in the later developmental stages. The OsYABBY1-expressing domains are closely associated with cells that subsequently differentiate into sclerenchymatous cells. These findings suggest that the function of OsYABBY1 is involved in regulating the differentiation of a few specific cell types and is unrelated to polar regulation of lateral organ development.     

Regulation of proneural gene expression and cell fate during neuroblast segregation in the Drosophila embryo.

The Drosophila embryonic central nervous system develops from sets of progenitor neuroblasts which segregate from the neuroectoderm during early embryogenesis. Cells within this region can follow either the neural or epidermal developmental pathway, a decision guided by two opposing classes of genes. The proneural genes, including the members of the achaete-scute complex (AS-C), promote neurogenesis, while the neurogenic genes prevent neurogenesis and facilitate epidermal development. To understand the role that proneural gene expression and regulation play in the choice between neurogenesis and epidermogenesis, we examined the temporal and spatial expression pattern of the achaete (ac) regulatory protein in normal and neurogenic mutant embryos. The ac protein is first expressed in a repeating pattern of four ectodermal cell clusters per hemisegment. Even though 5-7 cells initially express ac in each cluster, only one, the neuroblast, continues to express ac. The repression of ac in the remaining cells of the cluster requires zygotic neurogenic gene function. In embryos lacking any one of five genes, the restriction of ac expression to single cells does not occur; instead, all cells of each cluster continue to express ac, enlarge, delaminate and become neuroblasts. It appears that one key function of the neurogenic genes is to silence proneural gene expression within the nonsegregating cells of the initial ectodermal clusters, thereby permitting epidermal development.     

The receptor tyrosine kinase RET regulates hindgut colonization by sacral neural crest cells

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is formed from vagal and sacral neural crest cells (NCC). Vagal NCC give rise to most of the ENS along the entire gut, whereas the contribution of sacral NCC is mainly limited to the hindgut. This, and data from heterotopic quail-chick grafting studies, suggests that vagal and sacral NCC have intrinsic differences in their ability to colonize the gut, and/or to respond to signalling cues within the gut environment. To better understand the molecular basis of these differences, we studied the expression of genes known to be essential for ENS formation, in sacral NCC within the chick hindgut. Our results demonstrate that, as in vagal NCC, Sox10, EdnrB, and Ret are expressed in sacral NCC within the gut. Since we did not detect a qualitative difference in expression of these ENS genes we performed DNA microarray analysis of vagal and sacral NCC. Of 11 key ENS genes examined from the total data set, Ret was the only gene identified as being highly differentially expressed, with a fourfold increase in expression in vagal versus sacral NCC. We also found that over-expression of RET in sacral NCC increased their ENS developmental potential such that larger numbers of cells entered the gut earlier in development, thus promoting the fate of sacral NCC towards that of vagal NCC.     

Incomplete reactivation of Oct4-related genes in mouse embryos cloned from somatic nuclei

The majority of cloned animals derived by nuclear transfer from somatic cell nuclei develop to the blastocyst stage but die after implantation. Mouse embryos that lack an Oct4 gene, which plays an essential role in control of developmental pluripotency, develop to the blastocyst stage and also die after implantation, because they lack pluripotent embryonic cells. Based on this similarity, we posited that cloned embryos derived from differentiated cell nuclei fail to establish a population of truly pluripotent embryonic cells because of faulty reactivation of key embryonic genes such as Oct4. To explore this hypothesis, we used an in silico approach to identify a set of Oct4-related genes whose developmental expression pattern is similar to that of Oct4. When expression of Oct4 and 10 Oct4-related genes was analyzed in individual cumulus cell-derived cloned blastocysts, only 62% correctly expressed all tested genes. In contrast to this incomplete reactivation of Oct4-related genes in somatic clones, ES cell-derived cloned blastocysts and normal control embryos expressed these genes normally. Notably, the contrast between expression patterns of the Oct4-related genes correlated with efficiency of embryonic development of somatic and ES cell-derived cloned blastocysts to term. These observations suggest that failure to reactivate the full spectrum of these Oct4-related genes may contribute to embryonic lethality in somatic-cell clones.     

Cell type-specific gene expression in the Drosophila melanogaster male accessory gland.

The accessory gland of the male Drosophila melanogaster plays a vital role in reproduction. This secretory organ synthesizes products that are transferred to the female and are necessary to elicit the proper physiological and behavioral responses in the female. The accessory gland is composed of two morphologically distinct secretory cell types, the main cells and the secondary cells. Previous studies identified some genes expressed in main cells or in all accessory gland cells. In this paper we use P-element mediated enhancer traps to examine gene expression in the accessory gland. We show that, in addition to genes expressed in main cells only or in all accessory gland secretory cells, there are genes expressed specifically in secondary cells. Each cell type is uniform in the expression of its genes. Our results demonstrate that the two cell types are not only morphologically distinct but also biochemically distinct. We also show that the two cell types differ in their regulation of gene expression in response to mating activity.     

Identification and molecular characterization of novel anther-specific genes in Oryza sativa L. by using cDNA microarray

The complicated genetic pathway regulates the developmental programs of male reproductive organ, anther tissues. To understand these molecular mechanisms, we performed cDNA microarray analyses and in situ hybridization to monitor gene expression patterns during anther development in rice. Microarray analysis of 4,304 cDNA clones revealed that the hybridization signal of 396 cDNA clones (271 non-redundant groups) increased more than six-fold in every stage of the anthers compared with that of leaves. Cluster analysis with the expression data showed that 259 cDNA clones (156 non redundant groups) were specifically or predominantly expressed in anther tissues and were regulated by developmental stage-specific manners in the anther tissues. These co-regulated genes would be important for development of functional anther tissues. Furthermore, we selected several clones for RNA in situ hybridization analysis. From these analyses, we found several novel genes that show temporal and spatial expression patterns during anther development in addition to anther-specific genes reported so far. These results indicate that the genes identified in this experiment are controlled by different programs and are specialized in their developmental and cell types.     

Clusterin expression in porcine endocrine cells during islet development.

Clusterin is a well-known glycoprotein expressed by many cell types involved in multiple physiological functions. In rat pancreatic tissue it is expressed along with islet cell development and found to be involved in regeneration of pancreatic endocrine cells after various types of tissue injuries. These results led us to propose that clusterin might play a crucial role in organization and assembling processes of islet cells during pre- and postnatal development. Therefore, the aim of this study was to find out whether and in which cell type clusterin is expressed during islet cell organization in the porcine species which could play a future role in the field of xenotransplantation. For this purpose we examined the expression pattern of clusterin at different developing stages in the porcine pancreas by double-immunostaining with antibodies against chromogranin A and clusterin, and clarified whether distinct islet hormones were coexpressed with clusterin. Further, we checked by RT-PCR whether clusterin was locally expressed or possibly locally bound to the corresponding receptor. In newborn and up to 3-month-old animals clusterin was found to be expressed in a special cell type which is closely associated and intermingled with other endocrine cells. In fully developed adult islets clusterin-cells then reorganize and were found to be mainly localized in the mantle area of Langerhans islets. Double-immunostaining with antibodies against clusterin and different islet hormones such as insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin clearly demonstrate that clusterin expression was found in an own special cell type and it is also present in a subset of glucagon producing A-cells. Taken together, our results show that clusterin expression in porcine species is found in an own, as yet unidentified cell type during postnatal developmental stages, and probably labels immature precursor cells in adult animals, which finally have the potential to differentiate into glucagon-expressing cells.     

A Luminal Glycoprotein Drives Dose-Dependent Diameter Expansion of the Drosophila melanogaster Hindgut Tube

An important step in epithelial organ development is size maturation of the organ lumen to attain correct dimensions. Here we show that the regulated expression of Tenectin (Tnc) is critical to shape the Drosophila melanogaster hindgut tube. Tnc is a secreted protein that fills the embryonic hindgut lumen during tube diameter expansion. Inside the lumen, Tnc contributes to detectable O-Glycans and forms a dense striated matrix. Loss of tnc causes a narrow hindgut tube, while Tnc over-expression drives tube dilation in a dose-dependent manner. Cellular analyses show that luminal accumulation of Tnc causes an increase in inner and outer tube diameter, and cell flattening within the tube wall, similar to the effects of a hydrostatic pressure in other systems. When Tnc expression is induced only in cells at one side of the tube wall, Tnc fills the lumen and equally affects all cells at the lumen perimeter, arguing that Tnc acts non-cell-autonomously. Moreover, when Tnc expression is directed to a segment of a tube, its luminal accumulation is restricted to this segment and affects the surrounding cells to promote a corresponding local diameter expansion. These findings suggest that deposition of Tnc into the lumen might contribute to expansion of the lumen volume, and thereby to stretching of the tube wall. Consistent with such an idea, ectopic expression of Tnc in different developing epithelial tubes is sufficient to cause dilation, while epidermal Tnc expression has no effect on morphology. Together, the results show that epithelial tube diameter can be modelled by regulating the levels and pattern of expression of a single luminal glycoprotein.     

Molecular analysis of early rice stamen development using organ-specific gene expression profiling

Elucidating the regulatory mechanisms of plant organ formation is an important component of plant developmental biology and will be useful for crop improvement applications. Plant organ formation, or organogenesis, occurs when a group of primordial cells differentiates into an organ, through a well-orchestrated series of events, with a given shape, structure and function. Research over the past two decades has elucidated the molecular mechanisms of organ identity and dorsalventral axis determinations. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying the successive processes. To develop an effective approach for studying organ formation at the molecular level, we generated organ-specific gene expression profiles (GEPs) reflecting early development in rice stamen. In this study, we demonstrated that the GEPs are highly correlated with early stamen development, suggesting that this analysis is useful for dissecting stamen development regulation. Based on the molecular and morphological correlation, we found that over 26 genes, that were preferentially up-regulated during early stamen development, may participate in stamen development regulation. In addition, we found that differentially expressed genes during early stamen development are clustered into two clades, suggesting that stamen development may comprise of two distinct phases of pattern formation and cellular differentiation. Moreover, the organ-specific quantitative changes in gene expression levels may play a critical role for regulating plant organ formation. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at Xiao-Chun Lu, Hua-Qin Gong contributed equally to this work.     

Differential expression of inhibin subunits and follistatin, but not of activin receptor type II, during early murine embryonic development.

Activins are known to be potentially important regulators of early developmental processes in amphibians, birds, and mammalians. In this study we report the expression of the inhibin subunits, including those that make up activin, the activin-binding protein follistatin, and activin receptor type II in several in vitro systems that model early murine embryonic development, namely embryonic stem (ES) cells, embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells, and their differentiated derivatives. In addition, we examine the expression pattern of these factors in different stages of the mouse embryo itself. Expression of inhibin alpha and beta A subunits is restricted to certain differentiated cell types, while beta B subunits are expressed in both differentiated and undifferentiated cells. Our results further indicate a change in the expression pattern of inhibin subunits during early development from beta B at the blastocyst stage largely to beta A in postgastrulation embryos. This is similar to the expression pattern at equivalent stages of Xenopus and chick development. Expression of the activin-binding protein follistatin is altered by the induction of differentiation of P19 EC and ES cells by several factors, including retinoic acid. In contrast to the inhibin subunits and follistatin, activin receptor levels are not influenced by differentiation in these cell types. The results of this study demonstrate that the inhibin subunits and follistatin, but not the activin receptor type II, are differentially expressed during early murine development and suggest that the different forms of activin/inhibin are involved in the regulation of different developmental processes.     

The Trichoplax PaxB gene: a putative Proto-PaxA/B/C gene predating the origin of nerve and sensory cells

Pax genes play key regulatory roles in embryonic and sensory organ development in metazoans but their evolution and ancestral functions remain widely unresolved. We have isolated a Pax gene from Placozoa, beside Porifera the only metazoan phylum that completely lacks nerve and sensory cells or organs. These simplest known metazoans also lack any kind of symmetry, organs, extracellular matrix, basal lamina, muscle cells, and main body axis. The isolated Pax gene from Trichoplax adhaerens harbors a paired domain, an octapeptide, and a full-length homeodomain. It displays structural features not only of PaxB and Pax2/5/8-like genes but also of PaxC and Pax6 genes. Conserved splice sites between Placozoa, Cnidaria, and triploblasts, mark the ancient origin of intron structures. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the Trichoplax PaxB gene, TriPaxB, is basal not only to all other known PaxB genes but also to PaxA and PaxC genes and their relatives in triploblasts (namely Pax2/5/8, Pax4/6, and Poxneuro). TriPaxB is expressed in distinct cell patches near the outer edge of the animal body, where undifferentiated and possibly multipotent cells are found. This expression pattern indicates a developmental role in cell-type specification and/or differentiation, probably in specifying-determining fiber cells, which are regarded as proto-neural/muscle cells in Trichoplax. While PaxB, Pax2/5/8, and Pax6 genes have been linked to nerve cell and sensory system/organ development in virtually all animals investigated so far, our study suggests that Pax genes predate the origin of nerve and sensory cells.     

Bioinformatic Analysis of Nematode Migration-Associated Genes Identifies Novel Vertebrate Neural Crest Markers

Neural crest cells are highly motile, yet a limited number of genes governing neural crest migration have been identified by conventional studies. To test the hypothesis that cell migration genes are likely to be conserved over large evolutionary distances and from diverse tissues, we searched for vertebrate homologs of genes important for migration of various cell types in the invertebrate nematode and examined their expression during vertebrate neural crest cell migration. Our systematic analysis utilized a combination of comparative genomic scanning, functional pathway analysis and gene expression profiling to uncover previously unidentified genes expressed by premigratory, emigrating and/or migrating neural crest cells. The results demonstrate that similar gene sets are expressed in migratory cell types across distant animals and different germ layers. Bioinformatics analysis of these factors revealed relationships between these genes within signaling pathways that may be important during neural crest cell migration.