The history of crops and crop weeds in south-western Germany from the Neolithic period to modern times, as shown by archaeobotanical evidence

The results of more than 100 archaeobotanical investigations from south-western Germany have been arranged into chronological groups and analyzed with a spreadsheet to obtain presence data and the numbers of taxa present in the various time periods. They show an increase in the number of plant taxa cultivated in gardens since the Roman period, a decrease in the crops that were the earliest to be cultivated, especially emmer, and an increase of spelt, rye and oats in the course of time. New crop weeds appear, including an increasing number of southern plants originating from open vegetation. This is more likely to be a result of the intensification of agriculture than from increased human mobility. The crop weeds, grouped together according to their requirements for soil nutrients, show increasing soil acidification through the course of time.     

Pollen production in some plant taxa with a supposed role in allergy in Eastern India

This paper deals with the production of pollen grains per anther per flower of 15 probably allergenic pollen producing angiospermic plant taxa growing in Eastern India. The selected plant taxa includesAilanthus excelsa, Alstonia scholaris, Argemone mexicana, Azadirachta indica, Cassia alata, C. siamea, Dalbergia sissoo, Holarrhena pubescens, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Madhuca indica, Milletia pinnata, Mimusops elengi, Morus alba, M. indica andMurraya paniculata. Among the investigated taxa,A. excelsa produces the highest number of pollen grains (1635180) followed byC. siamea (1589245) andA. mexicana (463800). The production of pollen grains is lowest inH. pubescens (2500), followed byA. scholaris (5175),A. indica (6220) andM. paniculata (11200).     

Commercialization of plant tissue culture in India

Commercial application of plant tissue culture started in USA with micropropagation of orchids in 1970s. It has seen tremendous expansion globally from 1985 to 1990 in the number of production units as well as the number of plants produced. With an estimated global market of 15 billion US dollars per annum for tissue cultured products, even with exponential expansion in the industry, the demand far exceeds production, leaving enough scope for expansion. This industry appears to be undergoing a pause in growth presently in developed countries as it is finding difficult to remain cost–effective. In US, only half the production capacity is being utilized currently due to high labour costs. In developing countries, with lower wage scales, plants are being produced at much cheaper rates. Indian micropropagation industry, though a late starter by almost a decade, compared to its western counterparts, has expanded exponentially from 5 million annual capacity in 1988 to 190 million in 1996. The facilities now created are at par with the best in leading countries like the Netherlands and USA. To remain in profitable business and to earn the much needed foreign exchange, Indian units need to judiciously mix steady revenue generating items with unique speciality items based on demand in domestic and international markets. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The effect of some ecological factors on the intestinal parasite loads of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in southern India

Some ecological factors that might potentially influence intestinal parasite loads in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus Linn.) were investigated in the Nilgiris, southern India. Fresh dung samples from identified animals were analysed, and the number of eggs/g of dung used as an index of parasite load. Comparisons across seasons and habitats revealed that parasite loads were significantly higher during the dry season than the wet season, but were not different between the dry-deciduous and dry-thorn forests in either season. After accounting for the effect of age on body condition, there was no correlation between body condition, assessed visually using morphological criteria, and parasite load in either season. Individuals of different elephant herds were not characterized by distinct parasite communities in either season. When intra-individual variation was examined, samples collected from the same individual within a day differed significantly in egg densities, while the temporal variation over several weeks or months (within a season) was much less. Egg densities within dung piles were uniform, enabling a simpler collection method henceforth.     

Early Permian brachiopod faunas from Peninsular India: Their Gondwanan relationships

The Early Permian (Late Asselian? to Aktastinian?) brachiopod faunas of Peninsular India are revised in terms of current taxonomy. Genera such as Semilingula, Arctitreta, Etherilosia, Strophalosia, Aulosteges, Bandoproductus, Cyrtella, Neospirifer, Crassispirifer, Tomiopsis and Gilledia confirm the Gondwanan aspect of the faunas and a close relationship, at the generic level, to the Early Permian brachiopod faunas of Western Australia. Peninsular Indian Early Permian brachiopod faunas belong to a complex of Gondwanan and peri‐Gondwanan faunas from Oman and the Pamirs in the West to Australasia in the east. This distribution implies relative freedom of migration for the faunas along the northern margin of Gondwana during the Early Permian.     

Phylogenetic relationships between Synodontis species: some preliminary results

The aim of this study was to identify genetic markers and morphological characters to distinguish Synodontis species, because certain species are extremely difficult to identify due to the taxonomically unreliable nature of prominent morphological features. Fixed allele mobility differences were obtained at eight of the 17 loci studied. Unique alleles were found at EST(B) in S. zambezensis and LGG(B) in S. nigromaculatus, whereas the outgroup species Parauchenoglanis ngamensis had private alleles at SDH(A), MPI(C) and LGG(A). The species boundaries were tested using controlled breeding studies between S. nigromaculatus and S. zambezensis. A preliminary DNA sequence (781 base pairs) analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was done. Synodontis zambezensis, S. nigromaculatus, S. njassae and S. petricola, all with convex humeral processes, were grouped in one clade. The species S. macrostoma, S. macrostigma, S. woosnami and S. leopardinus were grouped together, but with poor resolution. Morphological characters to identify southern African Synodontis species are listed. A more detailed study is required to resolve the phylogenetic relationships of some of the species studied.     

Demography of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in southern India

Historically, the Asian elephant has never bred well in captivity. We have carried out demographic analyses of elephants captured in the wild or born in captivity and kept in forest timber camps in southern India during the past century. The average fecundity during this period was 0.095/adult female/year. During 1969–89, however, the fecundity was higher at 0.155/adult female/year, which compares favorably with wild populations. There was seasonality in births with a peak in January. The sex ratio of 129 male to 109 female calves at birth is not significantly different from equality, although the excess of male calves born mainly to mothers 20–40 years old may have biological significance. Mortality rates were higher in females than in males up to age 10, but much lower in females than in males above age 10 years. The population growth rate, based on the lower secundity over the century, was 0.5% per year, and based on the higher secundity during 1969–89, was 1.8% per year. The analyses thus showed that timber camp elephants in southern India could potentially maintain a stationary or increasing population without resorting to captures from the wild. Breeding efforts for elephants in zoos can thus profitably learn from the experience of traditional management systems in part of Asia. Zoo Biol 16:263–272, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Diversity of fungal endophytes in some medicinal plants of Himachal Pradesh,India

Fungal endophytes were isolated from surface sterilised leaf segments of five medicinal plants collected from Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh, India. A total of 373 fungal strains belonging to 15 fungal genera and 18 species, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. clavatus, A. variecolor, Penicillium chrsogenum, Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Haplosporium sp., Phoma sp., Nigrospora sp., Colletotrichum sp., Cladosporium sp., Stemphylium sp., Fusarium sp., Geotrichum sp., Phomopsis sp., Trichoderma sp., Rhizopus sp. and some sterile mycelium were isolated from all the plants. The relative frequency, isolation rate and colonisation rates of endophytes were used to study the endophytic diversity. The results showed that the highest colonisation rate (93.05%) was observed in Adhathoda vasica, while it was 91.66% in Ocimum sanctum, 85% in Viola odorata, 82.81% Cannabis sativa and lowest (61.11%) in Withania somnifera. Moreover, reading the richness and diversity of the endophytic fungi, the highest was obtained for O. sanctum, W. somnifera and C. sativa having eight species each, while lowest (6 and 4) was obtained from A. vasica and V. odorata, respectively. As the role of endophytic organisms in defensive mechanisms of plants is now well established, the present study is an important step to find new and interesting endophytes among the medicinal plants.     

An 11th century a.d. burnt granary at La Gravette, south-western France: preliminary archaeobotanical results

A thick layer of carbonised seeds was encountered in an 11th century a.d. room situated in the seigneurial part of the village of La Gravette. This paper presents the first results of charcoal and seed analyses which give information on the food products stored in the granary and on their arrangement there. Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum was by far the most important stored crop, while Avena sp., then Hordeum vulgare, Secale cereale, Triticum monococcum and Vitis vinifera were secondary. Weeds were poorly represented. Charcoals were dominated by deciduous Quercus sp., and 11 additional wood taxa were recorded, including especially Fagus sylvatica, Fraxinus sp., Rosaceae, Corylus avellana, Acer campestre and Ulmus sp. According to the charcoal distribution, Quercus and Fagus were probably building materials while most of other taxa would have been used for basketry, wattling or joinery work. In the western part of the granary, naked wheat was stored in bulk. In the eastern part, various crops (at least naked wheat, barley, rye, oat and grape) were stored in small amounts, most of which were probably separated by light wooden structures. The cereal crops had largely been processed and cleaned. The stored products probably represent taxes paid to the lord who owned the granary.     

Hydrogeochemical characterization of Yercaud lake southern India: Implications on lake water chemistry through multivariate statistics

In this paper, a study on the surface and deeper waters of the Yercaud Lake, Tamil Nadu, South India, was carried out to understand the geochemistry of the lake waters and also to determine its utility for agricultural purposes. Totally, 50 surface and deep water samples were collected from Yercaud Lake. Major ion and heavy metals were measured. The data obtained were interpreted using the lake water composition. The mean concentration of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals for the surface and deep waters have the following values, pH (7.6), EC (263.4), Ca^2 +(16.3), Mg^2 +(7.4), Na⁺(19.2), K⁺(1.5), Cl^?(18.2), NO₃^?(1.5), SO₄^2 ?(1.5), HCO₃^– (97.9), Fe (1.3), Mn (0.1), Cr (0.4), Cu (0.005), Pb (0.31), Zn (0.01), Co (0.095) and Ni (0.075). The data generated reflects that the water samples are dominated by recharge process, especially due to the monsoonal rains and natural springs within the lake. The geochemical data reveals that the lake water is suitable for the agricultural purpose and the chemistry of water is mainly influenced by the weathering of bedrock, especially the charnockites bedrock. The sodium adsorption ratio and sodium percentage (%Na) values indicate that the lake water is suitable for irrigation. Dominant heavy metals in the lake waters are mainly because of the lithogenic as well as through minor anthropogenic inputs. Based on our data it is noted that proper management plans are required to monitor the pollution source in the lake, with strict policy measures.     

The icthyofauna of the Mhlathuze coastal lakes: some preliminary results

The fish faunas of the four Mhlathuze coastal lakes and the lower river comprise a diverse assortment of over fifty marine, estuarine and freshwater species. Three freshwater species are endemic to KwaZulu-Natal and nine estuarine species are endemic to southern Africa. Five species are of conservation significance. Species numbers in Lakes Mzingazi and Cubhu are similar historically and both lakes served as secondary nursery habitats for estuarine associated fishes. This role has been impacted by the construction of weirs at their outlets which prevent successful recruitment of estuarine species, especially during drought years when lake water levels are low. The fish faunas of Lakes Nsezi and Mangeza are depauperate and lack marine or estuarine components. In order that these systems fulfil their potential function as secondary nursery habitats to many estuarine fish species, minimum lake water levels must be set to ensure sufficient outflows at proposed fish ladders during critical spawning and migration times.     

Leaf flushing phenology and herbivory in a tropical dry deciduous forest,southern India

Patterns of leaf-flushing phenology of trees in relation to insect herbivore damage were studied at two sites in a seasonal tropical dry forest in Mudumalai, southern India, from April 1988 to August 1990. At both sites the trees began to flush leaves during the dry season, reaching a peak leaf-flushing phase before the onset of rains. Herbivorous insects emerged with the rains and attained a peak biomass during the wet months. Trees that flushed leaves later in the season suffered significantly higher damage by insects compared to those that flushed early or in synchrony during the peak flushing phase. Species whose leaves were endowed with physical defenses such as waxes suffered less damage than those not possessing such defenses. There was a positive association between the abundance of a species and leaf damage levels. These observations indicate that herbivory may have played a major role in moulding leaf flushing phenology in trees of the seasonal tropics.     

Osteology of Barapasaurus tagorei (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Early Jurassic of India

Abstract: The sauropod dinosaur, Barapasaurus tagorei, is known from the Early Jurassic Kota Formation (Sinemurian to Pliensbachian) of India. The taxon is represented by c. 300 bones that were found associated with large fossilized tree trunks and were collected from the interface of sandstone and mudstone units covering an area of c. 276 m². The collection includes one partial skeleton; most of the remainder of the bones were disarticulated, disassociated and dispersed, but taphonomic analysis permits recognition of associated elements comprising several individuals. Skeletal anatomy of Barapasaurus includes several teeth, vertebrae from the caudal cervicals rearward to the terminal caudals, and most elements of the appendicular skeleton. Barapasaurus is characterized by spoon‐shaped teeth with bulbous bases and grooves on the anterolabial and posterolingual sides of the crown, coarse tubercles on the carina, acamerate cranial and dorsal vertebrae, lateral laminae of the middle and caudal dorsal neural spines composed of spinodiapophyseal and spinopostzygapophyseal laminae, neural canal of the mid‐dorsal vertebrae opens dorsally through a narrow slit into a large cavity and sacrum with four co‐ossified vertebrae. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that Barapasaurus is basal in comparison with Vulcanodon and is removed from Eusauropoda.     

Biofuels: opportunities and challenges in India

Energy plays a vital role in the economic growth of any country. Current energy supplies in the world are unsustainable from environmental, economic, and societal standpoints. All over the world, governments have initiated the use of alternative sources of energy for ensuring energy security, generating employment, and mitigating CO₂ emissions. Biofuels have emerged as an ideal choice to meet these requirements. Huge investments in research and subsidies for production are the rule in most of the developed countries. India started its biofuel initiative in 2003. This initiative differs from other nations’ in its choice of raw material for biofuel production—molasses for bioethanol and nonedible oil for biodiesel. Cyclicality of sugar, molasses, and ethanol production resulted in a fuel ethanol program which suffered from inconsistent production and supply. The restrictive policies, availability of molasses, and cost hampered the fuel ethanol program. Inconsistent policies, availability of land, choice of nonnative crops, yield, and market price have been major impediments for biodiesel implementation. However, a coherent, consistent, and committed policy with long-term vision can sustain India’s biofuel effort. This will provide energy security, economic growth, and prosperity and ensure a higher quality of life for India.     

Webspinners in Early Eocene amber from western India (Insecta, Embiodea)

The family Scelembiidae (Neoembiodea: Embiomorpha: Archembioidea) is recorded from Asia for the first time, based on two individuals preserved in Early Eocene amber from the Cambay Basin, western India. Kumarembia hurleyi Engel & Grimaldi, gen. n. et sp. n., is described, figured, and distinguished from other archembioid genera. The genus shares male genitalic features with scelembiids, otherwise known from South America and Africa.     

Late Neolithic agriculture in eastern Austria: archaeobotanical results from sites of the Baden and Jevišovice cultures (3600–2800 b.c.)

The article presents archaeobotanical results from six late Neolithic excavation sites in eastern Austria. Two of the sites belong to the Jevišovice culture (3200–2800 cal b.c.), the remaining four to the Baden culture (3600–2900 cal b.c.). Results show that farmers around 3000 cal b.c. were relying on the use of Triticum monococcum and Hordeum vulgare as principal cereals, with Triticum dicoccum and Panicum miliaceum as additional crops. Common millet was found in quantity at one of the Jevišovice sites and shows the remarkably early westward spread of this species. Single records of Triticum spelta are discussed in the light of the recently proposed ideas about an independent central European origin of spelt. Another record concerns the “new-type” glume wheat, providing further evidence for the once widespread occurrence of this cultivar. Triticum aestivum (hexaploid naked wheat) and Setaria italica (foxtail millet) were found as rare admixtures at the Jevišovice settlements. Pulses were represented by Pisum sativum and Lens culinaris, oil plants by Papaver somniferum and Linum usitatissimum. One of the Jevišovice sites offered a good opportunity for a study of the undisturbed spatial distribution of charred plant remains within a burnt house. Among wild plants, the occurrence of Stipa sp., Teucrium chamaedrys, Asperula cynanchica and Plantago media point to the presence of dry steppe grassland in the vicinity of the settlements, which was probably used for grazing. Woodland plants were mainly represented by fruit-bearing plants growing in clearings and forest edges, reflecting both the deliberate collection of wild fruits and the growing human impact on the vegetation.     

Vascular plant diversity in the sacred groves of Jaintia Hills in northeast India

Diversity of vascular plants was studied in three sacred groves of the Jaintia Hills, in northeast India. About 395 species, 250 genera, and 108 families comprising pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms were found in the groves. Orchidaceae, Rubiaceae, Asteraceae and Lauraceae were dominant families and Ficus was the largest genus, with nine species. About 160 tree species were distributed in canopy, subcanopy and under canopy strata of the forest. Concentration of tropical and temperate elements of the neighbouring Sino-Himalayan and Burma-Malayan regions, and endemic (54 species), rare (31 species) and primitive taxa (38 species) due to favourable climatic conditions and prolonged protection have contributed to the high species richness of the groves. Their better management and protection is important for the conservation of plant diversity in the region and also for the benefit of indigenous tribes of the state.     

Geophagy by the bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) of southern India: A preliminary analysis

Bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) in the Marakkanam Reserved Forest of southern India consume termitaria soils. Samples from the ingested termite mounds are compared with samples taken from the surrounding uneaten soils in an attempt to determine why the termitaria soils are eaten. Particle size, clay and primary mineral composition, geochemistry, and scanning electron microscopic analyses are used to search for a possible explanation for geophagy among the bonnet macaques. Kaolin minerals abound throughout the Marakkanam soil sample suite. But the termitaria soils are distinguished by the presence of small amounts of smectite. An abundance of kaolin minerals in combination with small amounts of smectite strongly resembles the mineralogy ofeko, a traditional African remedy for stomach ailments, and Kaopectate™, a western anti-diarrhoeal preparation. The percentage of mature leaves and fruits ofAzadirachta indica consumed by the bonnet macaques is relatively high. Plant feeding deterrents, such as, acid detergent fibre (ADF) and the inherent nature of the fruits ofAzadirachta indica, when consumed in large quantities to act as a purgative, could cause gastrointestinal upsets and diarrhoea. At Marakkanam, bonnet macaques ingest termitaria earth that would act as a pharmaceutical agent to alleviate gastrointestinal upsets and control diarrhoea.