Molecular characterization of a gene encoding extracellular serine protease isolated from a subtilisin inhibitor-deficient mutant of Streptomyces albogriseolus S-3253.

An extracellular serine protease produced by a mutant, M1, derived from Streptomyces albogriseolus S-3253 that no longer produces a protease inhibitor (Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor [SSI]) was isolated. A 20-kDa protein was purified by its affinity for SSI and designated SAM-P20. The amino acid sequence of the amino-terminal region of SAM-P20 revealed high homology with the sequences of Streptomyces griseus proteases A and B, and the gene sequence confirmed the relationships. The sequence also revealed a putative amino acid signal sequence for SAM-P20 that apparently functioned to allow secretion of SAM-P20 from Escherichia coli carrying the recombinant gene. SAM-P20 produced by E. coli cells was shown to be sensitive to SSI inhibition.     

A novel member of the subtilisin-like protease family from Streptomyces albogriseolus.

We previously isolated three extracellular endogenous enzymes from a Streptomyces albogriseolus mutant strain which were targets of Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI) (S. Taguchi, A. Odaka, Y. Watanabe, and H. Momose, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:180-186, 1995). In the present study, of the three enzymes the largest one, with a molecular mass of 45 kDa (estimated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis), termed SAM-P45, has been characterized in detail. The entire gene encoding SAM-P45 was cloned as an approximately 10-kb fragment from S. albogriseolus S-3253 genomic DNA into an Escherichia coli host by using a shuttle plasmid vector. The amino acid sequence corresponding to the internal region of SAM-P45, deduced from the nucleotide sequence of the gene, revealed high homology, particularly in three regions around the active-site residues (Asp, His, and Ser), with the amino acid sequences of the mature domain of subtilisin-like serine proteases. In order to investigate the enzymatic properties of this protease, recombinant SAM-P45 was overproduced in Streptomyces coelicolor by using a strong SSI gene promoter. Sequence analysis of the SAM-P45 gene and peptide mapping of the purified SAM-P45 suggested that it is synthesized as a large precursor protein containing a large C-terminal prodomain (494 residues) in addition to an N-terminal preprodomain (23 and 172 residues). A high proportion of basic amino acids in the C-terminal prodomain was considered to serve an element interactive with the phospholipid bilayer existing in the C-terminal prodomain, as found in other membrane-anchoring proteases of gram-positive bacteria. It is noteworthy that SAM-P45 was found to prefer basic amino acids to aromatic or aliphatic amino acids in contrast to subtilisin BPN', which has a broad substrate specificity. The hydrolysis by SAM-P45 of the synthetic substrate (N-succinyl-L-Gly-L-Pro-L-Lys-p-nitroanilide) most preferred by this enzyme was inhibited by SSI, chymostatin, and EDTA. The proteolytic activity of SAM-P45 was stimulated by the divalent cations Ca2+ and Mg2+. From these findings, we conclude that SAM-P45 interacts with SSI and can be categorized as a novel member of the subtilisin-like serine protease family.     

A protease inhibitor produced by Streptomyces lividans 66 exhibits inhibitory activities toward both subtilisin BPN' and trypsin.

A proteinaceous protease inhibitor was isolated from the culture broth of Streptomyces lividans 66 by a series of purification steps (salting out by ammonium sulfate, ion-exchange chromatography on DEAE-cellulose, hydrophobic chromatography on Phenyl-Sepharose, and gel-filtration on Sephacryl S-200), and was named S. lividans protease inhibitor (SLPI). The purified SLPI existed in a dimeric form consisting of two identical subunits, each of which was composed of 107 amino acids. SLPI exhibited strong inhibitory activity toward subtilisin BPN'. These features were similar to those of protein protease inhibitors produced by other Streptomyces (SSI family inhibitor). In addition, SLPI was capable of inhibiting trypsin with an inhibitor constant (Ki) of about 10(-9) M. The primary structure of SLPI and location of two disulfide bridges were homologous to those of the other serine protease inhibitors of Streptomyces. The reactive site of SLPI was found to be Arg67-Glu68 from the sequence analysis of cleaved SLPI which was produced by acidification of subtilisin-SLPI complex. An Arg residue at the P1 site was consistent with the trypsin-inhibitory property of SLPI. Sequence comparison with other members of the SSI family revealed that amino acid replacements in SLPI were mainly localized on the surface of the SLPI molecule, and many of the amino acid residues in beta-sheets and hydrophobic core were well conserved.     

Effect of inhibitory activity of mutation at reaction site P4 of the Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor, SSI

The protein Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor, SSI, efficiently inhibits a bacterial serine protease, subtilisin BPN'. We recently demonstrated that functional change in SSI was possible simply by replacing the amino acid residue at the reactive P1 site (methionine 73) of SSI. The present paper reports the additional effect of replacing methionine 70 at the P4 site of SSI (Lys73) on inhibitory activity toward two types of serine proteases, trypsin (or lysyl endopeptidase) and subtilisin BPN'. Conversion of methionine 70 at the P4 site of SSI(Lys73) to glycine or alanine resulted in increased inhibitory activity toward trypsin and lysyl endopeptidase, while replacement with phenylalanine weakened the inhibitory activity toward trypsin. This suggests that steric hindrance at the P4 site of SSI(Lys73) is an obstacle for its binding with trypsin. In contrast, the same P4 replacements had hardly any effect on inhibitory activity toward subtilisin BPN'. Thus the subsite structure of subtilisin BPN' is tolerant to these replacements. This contrast in the effect of P4 substitution might be due to the differences in the S4 subsite structures between the trypsin-like and the subtilisin-like proteases. These findings demonstrate the importance of considering structural complementarity, not only at the main reactive site but also at subsites of a protease, when designing stronger inhibitors.     

A novel double-headed proteinaceous inhibitor for metalloproteinase and serine proteinase

A novel proteinaceous inhibitor for the metalloproteinase of Streptomyces caespitosus has been isolated from the culture supernatant of Streptomyces sp. I-355. It was named ScNPI (Streptomyces caespitosus neutral proteinase inhibitor). ScNPI exhibited strong inhibitory activity toward ScNP with a K(i) value of 1.6 nm. In addition, ScNPI was capable of inhibiting subtilisin BPN' (K(i) = 1.4 nm) (EC ). The scnpi gene consists of two regions, a signal peptide (28 amino acid residues) and a mature region (113 amino acid residues, M(r) = 11,857). The deduced amino acid sequence of scnpi showed high similarity to those of Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI) and its homologues. The reactive site of ScNPI for inhibition of subtilisin BPN' was identified to be Met(71)-Tyr(72) bond by specific cleavage. To identify the reactive site for ScNP, Tyr(33) and Tyr(72), which are not conserved among other SSI family inhibitors but are preferable amino acid residues for ScNP, were replaced separately by Ala. The Y33A mutant retained inhibitory activity toward subtilisin BPN' but did not show any inhibitory activity toward ScNP. Moreover, a dimer of ternary complexes among ScNPI, ScNP, and subtilisin BPN' was formed to give the 2:2:2 stoichiometry. These results strongly indicate that ScNPI is a double-headed inhibitor that has individual reactive sites for ScNP and subtilisin BPN'.     

Inhibition of subtilisin BPN' by reaction site P1 mutants of Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor

It has been shown that the P1 site (the center of the reactive site) of protease inhibitors corresponds to the specificity of the cognate protease, and consequently specificity of Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI) can be altered by substitution of a single amino acid at the P1 site. In this paper, to investigate whether similar correlation between inhibitory activity of mutated SSI and substrate preference of protease is observed for subtilisin BPN', which has broad substrate specificity, a complete set of mutants of SSI at the reaction site P1 (position 73) was constructed by cassette and site-directed mutagenesis and their inhibitory activities toward subtilisin BPN' were measured. Mutated SSIs which have a polar (Ser, Thr, Gln, Asn), basic (Lys, Arg), or aromatic amino acid (Tyr, Phe, Trp, His), or Ala or Leu, at the P1 site showed almost the same strong inhibitory activity toward subtilisin as the wild type (Met) SSI. However, the inhibitory activity of SSI variants with an acidic (Glu, Asp), or a beta-branched aliphatic amino acid (Val, Ile), or Gly or Pro, at P1 was decreased. The values of the inhibitor constant (Ki) of mutated SSIs toward subtilisin BPN' were consistent with the substrate preference of subtilisin BPN'. A linear correlation was observed between log(1/Ki) of mutated SSIs and log(1/Km) of synthetic substrates. These results demonstrate that the inhibitory activities of P1 site mutants of SSI are linearly related to the substrate preference of subtilisin BPN', and indicate that the binding mode of the inhibitors with the protease may be similar to that of substrates, as in the case of trypsin and chymotrypsin.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Interactions of Streptomyces serine-protease inhibitors with Streptomyces griseus metalloendopeptidase II.

Streptomyces griseus metalloendopeptidase II (SGMPII) was shown to form tight complexes with several Streptomyces protein inhibitors which had been believed to be specific to serine proteases, such as Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI), plasminostreptin (PS), and alkaline protease inhibitor-2c' (API-2c'), as well as with Streptomyces metalloprotease inhibitor (SMPI). The dissociation constants of complexes between SGMPII and these inhibitors were successfully determined by using a novel fluorogenic bimane-peptide substrate. The values ranged from nM to pM. The results of studies by gel chromatographic and enzymatic analyses indicated that SGMPII is liberated from the complex with SSI by the addition of subtilisin BPN'. SGMPII and subtilisin BPN' proved, therefore, to interact with SSI in a competitive manner, despite the difference in the chemical nature of their active sites.     

Streptomyces serine protease (DHP-A) as a new biocatalyst capable of forming chiral intermediates of 1,4-dihydropyridine calcium antagonists

Streptomyces viridosporus A-914 was screened as a producer of an enzyme to effectively form chiral intermediates of 1,4-dihydropyridine calcium antagonists. The supernatant liquid of the growing culture of this strain exhibited high activity for enantioselective hydrolysis of prochiral 1,4-dihydropyridine diesters to the corresponding (4R) half esters. The responsible enzyme (termed DHP-A) was purified to apparent homogeneity and characterized. Cloning and sequence analysis of the gene for DHP-A (dhpA) revealed that the enzyme was a serine protease that is highly similar in both structural and enzymatic feature to SAM-P45, which is known as a target enzyme of Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI), from Streptomyces albogriseolus. In a batch reaction test, DHP-A produced a higher yield of a chiral intermediate of 1,4-dihydropyridine than the commercially available protease P6. Homologous or heterologous expression of dhpA resulted in overproduction of the enzyme in culture supernatants, with 2.4- to 4.2-fold higher specific activities than in the parent S. viridosporus A-914. This indicates that DHP-A is suitable for use in reactions forming chiral intermediates of calcium antagonists and suggests the feasibility of developing DHP-A as a new commercial enzyme for use in the chiral drug industry.     

Mechanisms of temporary inhibition in Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor induced by an amino acid substitution, tryptophan 86 replaced by histidine

Just one amino acid substitution (Trp86 replaced by His), which is more than 30 A away from the reactive site, changed the inhibitor, Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI), into a temporary inhibitor without a change in the inhibition constant. When the inhibitor was in excess of subtilisin BPN', the wild-type SSI was stable under protease attack, while the mutant inhibitor was hydrolyzed to peptide fragments in an all-or-none manner. The mechanism of this temporary inhibition induced by the amino acid substitution was studied on the basis of structural, thermodynamic, and kinetic data obtained by a combined use of NMR, hydrogen-deuterium exchange, differential scanning calorimetry, and gel filtration HPLC. The mutation did not induce major structural changes, and in particular, the structure of the enzyme-binding region was virtually unaffected. The denaturation temperature of SSI, however, was decreased by 10 deg upon mutation, although it still remained a thermostable protein with a denaturation temperature of 73 degrees C. Furthermore, the activation enthalpy for denaturation was reduced dramatically, to half that of the wild type. When the mutated SSI is present in excess of the enzyme, the proteolysis followed first-order reaction kinetics with respect to the total concentration of the mutated SSI molecules present. From these combined results, we conclude that the proteolysis proceeds not through the native form of the inhibitor in the inhibitor-enzyme complex but through the denatured (unfolded) form of the inhibitor whose fraction is increased by the mutation. This conclusion states that the necessary condition for being a serine protease inhibitor lies not only in the design of the reactive site structure that is highly resistant to protease attack but also in the suppression of such structural fluctuation that brings about cooperative denaturation. In contrast, when the protease existed in excess of the mutated inhibitor, the proteolysis reaction was accelerated by more than 2 orders of magnitude. Furthermore, the reaction occurred even in the wild-type SSI at a comparable rate as in the mutated protein. This indicates that in the enzyme excess case another, more efficient digestion mechanism involving fluctuation within the native manifold of the inhibitor dominates.     

Interactions of Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor with Streptomyces griseus proteases A and B. Enzyme kinetic and computer simulation studies

Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI), a dimeric protein that strongly inhibits subtilisins, was shown to form tight inhibitory complexes with Streptomyces griseus proteases A and B (SGPA and SGPB). The apparent dissociation constants of the SGPA-SSI and SGPB-SSI complexes were found to be orders of magnitude less than those of subtilisin-SSI complexes. Using the known atomic coordinates for SGPA and SSI, the highly complementary nature of the surface geometries of the two proteins was confirmed by a computer graphics study, which led to a proposed structure for the SGPA-SSI complex. Kinetic studies further suggested that the SSI dimer can bind two molecules of either SGPA or SGPB, and the 2:1-complexes (consisting of one inhibitor dimer and one enzyme molecule) apparently possess lower intrinsic dissociation constants than the 2:2-complexes. It was also shown that both of SGPA and SGPB are inhibited by both soybean trypsin inhibitor (Kunitz) and bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (Kunitz), but far less strongly than by SSI.     

Refined crystal structure of the complex of subtilisin BPN' and Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor at 1.8 A resolution

The crystal structure of subtilisin BPN' complexed with a proteinaceous inhibitor SSI (Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor) was refined at 1.8 A resolution to an R-factor of 0.177 with a root-mean-square deviation from ideal bond lengths of 0.014 A. The work finally established that the SSI-subtilisin complex is a Michaelis complex with a distance between the O gamma of active Ser221 and the carbonyl carbon of the scissile peptide bond being an intermediate value between a covalent bond and a van der Waals' contact, 2.7 A. This feature, as well as the geometry of the catalytic triad and the oxyanion hole, is coincident with that found in other highly refined crystal structures of the complex of subtilisin Novo, subtilisin Carlsberg, bovine trypsin or Streptomyces griseus protease B with their proteinaceous inhibitors. The enzyme-inhibitor beta-sheet interaction is composed of two separate parts: that between the P1-P3 residues of SSI and the 125-127 chain segment (the "S1-3 site") of subtilisin and that between the P4-P6 residues of SSI and th 102-104 chain segment (the "S4-6 site") of subtilisin. The latter beta-interaction is unique to subtilisin. In contrast, the beta-sheet interaction previously found in the complex of subtilisin Novo and chymotrypsin inhibitor 2 or in the complex of subtilisin Carlsberg and Eglin C is distinct from the present complex in that the two types of beta-interactions are not separate. As for the flexibility of the molecules comprising the present complex, the following observations were made by comparing the B-factors for free and complexed SSI and comparing those for free and complexed subtilisin BPN'. The rigidification of the component molecules upon complex formation occurs in a very localized region: in SSI, the "primary" and "secondary" contact regions and the flanking region; in subtilisin BPN', the S1-3 and S4-6 sites and the flanking region.     

High-level expression in Streptomyces lividans 66 of a gene encoding Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor from Streptomyces albogriseolus S-3253

A secretory expression system for Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI) was established in a heterologous host, Streptomyces lividans 66, by introducing the 1.8-kbp BglII/SalI fragment containing SSI gene into the Streptomyces multicopy vector, pIJ 702. The expression of SSI did not depend on the orientation of the 1.8-kbp BglII/SalI fragment or on the promoter for tyrosinase gene (mel) in pIJ 702, which suggested that this fragment also carries the SSI promoter. The expressed SSI in S.lividans 66 was secreted into the culture medium in a large amount, as observed with the original strain, S. albogriseolus S-3253. Amino acid sequence analysis showed that the SSI secreted from S. lividans 66 contained three additional amino acid residues in the NH2-terminal region. The inhibitory activity toward subtilisin BPN' and the antigenic activity of the SSI secreted from S. lividans 66 were found to be identical with those of authentic SSI.     

Neospora caninum expresses an unusual single-domain Kazal protease inhibitor that is discharged into the parasitophorous vacuole

Serine protease inhibitors have been implicated in viral and parasite pathogenesis through their ability to inhibit apoptosis, provide protection against digestive enzymes in the gut and dictate host range specificity. Two Kazal family serine protease inhibitors from the obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii (TgPI-1 and TgPI-2) have been characterised previously. Here, we describe the identification and initial characterisation of a novel Kazal inhibitor, NcPI-S, from a closely related apicomplexan parasite, Neospora caninum. Unlike the multidomain inhibitors identified in T. gondii, NcPI-S is a single domain inhibitor bearing a methionine in the position (P1) that typically dictates specificity for target proteases. Based on this, NcPI-S was predicted to inhibit elastase, chymotrypsin and subtilisin. However, we found that recombinant NcPI-S inhibited subtilisin very well, with little or no activity against elastase or chymotrypsin. NcPI-S localises to the dense granules and is secreted into the parasitophorous vacuole. Finally, antibodies raised against recombinant NcPI-S recognise two polypeptides in an N. caninum lysate, one with a molecular mass approximately 11 kDa and another at approximately 20 kDa. This, along with mass spectrometry analysis of recombinant NcPI-S, suggests that the inhibitor is expressed as a dimer in the parasite.     

Interaction of thiolsubtilisin with Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor, SSI.

Subtilisin BPN' was chemically converted to thiolsubtilisin and the interaction of this modified enzyme with Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI) was examined. SSI competitively inhibited the esterolytic activity of thiolsubtilisin toward p-nitrophenyl acetate with a K1 value of 1.3 X 10(-5) M at pH 7.5 Spectrophotometric analysis of the interaction between SSI and the modified enzyme yielded a Kd value of 4 X 10(-5) M at pH 9.7. These values are about 10(5)-fold greater than the Kd value (less than 10(-9) M at pH 7.5) for the native enzyme. This indicates that the small change in the active site structure of subtilisin (Ser221 to Cys221) leads to a considerable decrease in the binding affinity (by about 6-7 kcal/mol) to SSI.     

Structural basis for dual-inhibition mechanism of a non-classical Kazal-type serine protease inhibitor from horseshoe crab in complex with subtilisin

Serine proteases play a crucial role in host-pathogen interactions. In the innate immune system of invertebrates, multi-domain protease inhibitors are important for the regulation of host-pathogen interactions and antimicrobial activities. Serine protease inhibitors, 9.3-kDa CrSPI isoforms 1 and 2, have been identified from the hepatopancreas of the horseshoe crab, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda. The CrSPIs were biochemically active, especially CrSPI-1, which potently inhibited subtilisin (Ki = 1.43 nM). CrSPI has been grouped with the non-classical Kazal-type inhibitors due to its unusual cysteine distribution. Here we report the crystal structure of CrSPI-1 in complex with subtilisin at 2.6 Å resolution and the results of biophysical interaction studies. The CrSPI-1 molecule has two domains arranged in an extended conformation. These two domains act as heads that independently interact with two separate subtilisin molecules, resulting in the inhibition of subtilisin activity at a ratio of 1:2 (inhibitor to protease). Each subtilisin molecule interacts with the reactive site loop from each domain of CrSPI-1 through a standard canonical binding mode and forms a single ternary complex. In addition, we propose the substrate preferences of each domain of CrSPI-1. Domain 2 is specific towards the bacterial protease subtilisin, while domain 1 is likely to interact with the host protease, Furin. Elucidation of the structure of the CrSPI-1: subtilisin (1∶2) ternary complex increases our understanding of host-pathogen interactions in the innate immune system at the molecular level and provides new strategies for immunomodulation.     

Purification and amino acid sequence of a bitter gourd inhibitor against an acidic amino acid-specific endopeptidase of Streptomyces griseus.

An inhibitor (BGIA) against an acidic amino acid-specific endopeptidase of Streptomyces griseus (Glu S. griseus protease) was isolated from seeds of the bitter gourd Momordica charantia L., and its amino acid sequence was determined. The molecular weight of BGIA based on the amino acid sequence was calculated to be 7419. BGIA competitively inhibited Glu S. griseus protease with an inhibition constant (Ki) of 70 nM, and gel filtration analyses suggested that BGIA forms a 1:1 complex with this protease. However, two other acidic amino acid-specific endopeptidases, protease V8 from Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis proteinase (Glu B. subtilis protease), were not inhibited by BGIA. BGIA had no inhibitory activity against chymotrypsin, trypsin, porcine pancreatic elastase, and papain, although subtilisin Carlsberg was strongly inhibited. The amino acid sequence of BGIA shows similarity to potato chymotrypsin inhibitor, barley subtilisin-chymotrypsin inhibitor CI-1 and CI-2, and leech eglin C, especially around the reactive site. Although the residue at the putative reactive site of these inhibitors is leucine or methionine, the corresponding amino acid in BGIA is alanine.     

Complex of subtilisin BPN' with Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor. Complex formation concomitant with change in reducibility of disulfide bonds in the inhibitor

Structure of the complex of Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI) with subtilisin BPN' was studied by examining the thermal denaturation and reducibility of disulfide bonds. The denaturation temperature of the complex was significantly higher than that of the enzyme. Two disulfide bonds localized in the inhibitor side were completely reduced in the complex, whereas only one of them was reduced in the free SSI. Gel filtration of the reduced complex solution showed clearly that the main products of reduction of the complex were two peptide fragments of SSI divided at the active site. The resistive disulfide bond in the complexed inhibitor became accessible as a result of a large conformational change due to splitting of the half-reduced inhibitor.     

Crystal structure at 2.6 A resolution of the complex of subtilisin BPN' with streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor

The crystal structure of the complex of a bacterial alkaline serine proteinase, subtilisin BPN', with its proteinaceous inhibitor SSI (Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor) was solved at 2.6 A resolution. Compared with other similar complexes involving serine proteinases of the trypsin family, the present structure is unique in several respects. (1) In addition to the usual antiparallel beta-sheet involving the P1, P2 and P3 residues of the inhibitor, the P4, P5 and P6 residues form an antiparallel beta-sheet with a previously unnoticed chain segment (residues 102 through 104, which was named the S4-6 site) of subtilisin BPN'. (2) The S4-6 site does not exist in serine proteinases of the trypsin family, whether of mammalian or microbial origin. (3) Global induced-fit movement seems to occur on SSI: a channel-like structure in SSI where hydrophobic side-chains are sandwiched between two lobes becomes about 2 A wider upon complexing with subtilisin. (4) The complex is most probably a Michaelis complex, as in most of the other complexes. (5) The main role of the "secondary contact region" of SSI seems to be to support the reactive site loop ("primary contact region"). Steric homology of the two contact regions between the inhibitors of the SSI family and the pancreatic secretory trypsin inhibitor-ovomucoid inhibitor family is so high that it seems to indicate divergent evolutionary processes and to support the general notion as to the relationship of prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes put forward by Doolittle (1978).     

Extracellular production system of heterologous peptide driven by a secretory protease inhibitor of Streptomyces

Summary The value of a heterologous peptide extracellular production system in Streptomyces using a secretory protease inhibitor, was examined. DNA was synthesized encoding apidaecin 1b (AP1), an interesting antibacterial peptide discovered in lymph fluid of the honeybee, and was joined to the Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI) gene via a 12-bp nucleotide sequence corresponding to the amino acid sequence specific for cleavage by blood coagulation factor Xa. The fusion protein (SSI-AP1) could be expressed and excreted efficiently into the medium by culturing S. lividans 66 harbouring a plasmid vector constructed for SSI secretion, into which the synthetic DNA was introduced. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and amino acid analysis of the purified SSI-AP1 protided reasonable results of molecular size and composition value. Interestingly, SSI-AP1 protein showed bifunctional activity: inhibitory activity of SSI and antibacterial activity of AP1. The inhibitory activity against Escherichia coli could be also detected after the fusion protein was cleaved by factor Xa. The extracellular production system presented here should provide a useful tool for production, analysis of mode of action, and also for genetic improvement of antimicrobial peptides such as apidaecin.Offprint requests to: H. Momose