Emission of water stress ethylene in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) ears: effects of rewatering

In this work it has been found that ethylene production increased only slightly under conditions of a moderate or severe water stress. However, the rehydration of the plants at full turgor after desiccation caused a high emission of ethylene. The desiccation would not irreversibly inactivate the enzymes of the ethylene pathway, since rehydration made the synthesis recommence almost immediately. Water deficit also increased the free radical levels and the antioxidant scavengers, such as superoxide dismutase. Free radicals promote the conversion of 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid to ethylene, then it is logical to think that both chemical species are involved in the phenomenon of the acceleration of the grain maturity before the plant collapses.     

Uniconazole-induced thermotolerance in wheat seedlings is mediated by transpirational cooling

Seed treatment of thermotolerant and sensitive cultivars of wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. cv. Frederick and Glenlea, respectively) with uniconazole reduced shoot and increased root fresh and dry weights. When subjected to 48°C for 6 h, treated seedlings had lower leaf-temperatures and overall higher rates of evapotranspiration. Percent survival 11 days after high temperature incubation in untreated seedlings was 53% in Frederick and 30% in Glenlea, whereas in uniconazole-treated seedlings it was 94% and 80%, respectively. Transpiration resistance markedly increased in the control cultivars after 4 h of high-temperature incubation, but remained relatively unchanged in the treated cultivars. The increased root to shoot ratio exhibited in treated plants may have alleviated guard cell stress, even under high evaporative demand. Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements on leaves of heat-stressed seedlings indicated that increased photosynthetic metabolism in treated seedlings was correlated with lower leaf temperatures. High-temperature stress resulted in a dramatic decline in pigments and proteins in thylakoid extracts of control seedlings but not in extracts from treated seedlings. Integrity of thylakoid pigment protein complexes, as illustrated by reduced relative amounts of free pigment, was maintained after exposure to high temperatures in treated seedlings. Furthermore, the treated Glenlea seedlings displayed a reduction in the monomeric form of Sight-harvesting chlorophyll protein II (LHCP II) compared to control and Frederick seedlings. The heat-tolerant Frederick cultivar showed a greater protective effect from uniconazole treatment than the sensitive Glenlea cultivar. Uniconazole treatment did not affect heat-shock protein (HSP) synthesis in mesocotyl tissue.     

Changes in water status during water stress at different stages of development in wheat

The dynamics of stomatal resistance and osmotic adjustment in response to plant water deficits and stage of physiological development was studied in the leaves of spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum L., GWO 1809). Plants were germinated and grown in pots in a growth chamber at the Duke University Phytotron to four physiological stages of development (4th leaf, 7th leaf, anthesis, and soft dough), during which time stomatal resistance, total water potential and osmotic potential were measured on the last fully developed leaf of water stressed and non-stressed plants. Pressure potential was obtained by difference. Stomatal closure of the abaxial and adaxial surfaces were independent of each other, each having a different critical total water potential. The total water potential required to close the stomata on the last fully developed leaf were different at different stages of physiological development, decreasing as the plants grew older. The development of osmoregulation in wheat allows the closure of stomata during the vegetative stage at a high total water potential, but insures that stomata remain open from anthesis through the ear filling period to a lower total water potential.     

The wheat protein kinase gene,TaPK3/, of the PKABA1 subfamily is differentially regulated in greening wheat seedlings

We have identified a new wheat PKABA1/-like protein kinase gene, TaPK3/, that is expressed in greening wheat seedlings. TaPK3 has high sequence homology (97% similarity with some sequence diversity at the 3' end) to the wheat PKABA1 protein kinase mRNA, which is upregulated by cold-temperature treatment, dehydration and abscisic acid (ABA). Use of a TaPK3 gene-specific probe has revealed that TaPK3 is differentially expressed with respect to PKABA1. TaPK3 mRNA accumulates in greening shoot tissue of wheat, but is not affected by dehydration, cold-temperature treatment or ABA. Based on sequence and expression differences, we conclude that expression of the PKABA1/-like protein kinases is not limited to stress responses.     

Antioxidant responses of wheat plants under stress

Currently, food security depends on the increased production of cereals such as wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), which is an important source of calories and protein for humans. However, cells of the crop have suffered from the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can cause severe oxidative damage to the plants, due to environmental stresses. ROS are toxic molecules found in various subcellular compartments. The equilibrium between the production and detoxification of ROS is sustained by enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants. In the present review, we offer a brief summary of antioxidant defense and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) signaling in wheat plants. Wheat plants increase antioxidant defense mechanisms under abiotic stresses, such as drought, cold, heat, salinity and UV-B radiation, to alleviate oxidative damage. Moreover, H₂O₂ signaling is an important factor contributing to stress tolerance in cereals.     

Effects of water stress on photochemical function and protein metabolism of photosystem II in wheat leaves

The effects of osmotic dehydration in wheat leaves ( Triticum aestivum L. cv. Longchun No. 10) on the photochemical function and protein metabolism of PSII were studied with isolated thylakoid and PSII membranes. The results indicated that PSII was rather resistant to water stress as mild water deficit in leaves did nut significantly affect its activity. However, extreme stress conditions such as 40% decrease in relative water content (RWC) or 1.8 MPa in water potential (Ψ) caused ca 50% reduction in O₂ evolution and ca 25% inhibition of DCIP (2.6-dichlorophenol indophenol) photoreduction of PSII. In addition, it was found that the inhibited DCIP photoreduction of PSII could not be reversed by DPC (2.2-diphenylcarbazide), a typical electron donor to PSII, suggesting that water stress did not affect electron donation to PSII. Urea-SDS-PAGE and western blot analysis showed that the steady slate levels of major PSII proteins, including the D1 and D2 proteins in the PSII reaction center, declined on a chlorophyll basis with increasing water stress, possibly as a result of increased degradation. In vitro translation experiments and quantitative analysis of chloroplast RNAs indicated that the potential synthesis of chloroplast proteins from their mRNAs was impaired by water stress. From the results it is concluded that the effects of water stress on PSII protein metabolism, especially on the reaction center proteins, may account for the damage to PSII photochemistry.     

Antioxidative enzymes and the Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia) resistance response in wheat (Triticum aestivum)

A crucial function of antioxidative enzymes is to remove excess reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can be toxic to plant cells. The effect of Russian wheat aphid (RWA), Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko), infestation on the activities of antioxidative enzymes was investigated in the resistant (cv. Tugela DN) and the near-isogenic susceptible (cv. Tugela) wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). RWA infestation significantly induced the activity of superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase and ascorbate peroxidase to higher levels in the resistant than in susceptible plants. These findings suggest the involvement of antioxidative enzymes in the RWA-wheat resistance response, which was accompanied by an early oxidative burst. The results are consistent with the role of ROS in the resistance response and the control of their levels to minimise toxic effects.     

Silicon and copper interaction in the growth of spring wheat seedlings

Shoot and root fresh and dry matters and their Cu content were determined in 7-d-old seedlings of Triticum aestivum L. cv. Alkora treated with Cu (10,20, 40 μg cm-3) and Si (500 μg cm-3). Si significantly reduced the toxic effect of Cu on fresh and dry matter production of wheat seedlings. Moreover, plants treated with Cu and Si absorbed less Cu from the solution and had higher water content in shoots and roots than that treated with Cu only. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Phenotypic plasticity of internode elongation stimulated by deep-seeding and ethylene in wheat seedlings

Deep-seeding and ethylene were found to stimulate extension growth of the first internode of intact wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings in darkness. Seedlings of Hon Mang Mai emerged from much deeper in the soil than the seedlings of the other varieties used and their first internodes elongated to a much greater extent in response to ethylene. Carbon dioxide slowed elongation of the first internode and inhibited ethylene action. Elongation of the first internode due to deep-seeding and ethylene treatment showed high heritabilities, suggesting a genetic basis underlying those traits.     

Silencing of copine genes confers common wheat enhanced resistance to powdery mildew

Powdery mildew, caused by the biotrophic fungal pathogen Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici (Bgt), is a major threat to the production of wheat (Triticum aestivum). It is of great importance to identify new resistance genes for the generation of Bgt‐resistant or Bgt‐tolerant wheat varieties. Here, we show that the wheat copine genes TaBON1 and TaBON3 negatively regulate wheat disease resistance to Bgt. Two copies of TaBON1 and three copies of TaBON3, located on chromosomes 6AS, 6BL, 1AL, 1BL and 1DL, respectively, were identified from the current common wheat genome sequences. The expression of TaBON1 and TaBON3 is responsive to both pathogen infection and temperature changes. Knocking down of TaBON1 or TaBON3 by virus‐induced gene silencing (VIGS) induces the up‐regulation of defence responses in wheat. These TaBON1‐ or TaBON3‐silenced plants exhibit enhanced wheat disease resistance to Bgt, accompanied by greater accumulation of hydrogen peroxide and heightened cell death. In addition, high temperature has little effect on the up‐regulation of defence response genes conferred by the silencing of TaBON1 or TaBON3. Our study shows a conserved function of plant copine genes in plant immunity and provides new genetic resources for the improvement of resistance to powdery mildew in wheat.     

Response of carbonic anhydrase to polyethylene glycol-mediated water stress in wheat

Carbonic anhydrase (CA) activity in wheat leaves changed upon leaf dehydration: it decreased at mild stress (relative water content, RWC, 81 %), but increased at severe water stress (RWC 74 %). Phosphoenopyruvate carboxylase activity was not significantly affected by these stresses. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Polyamine concentrations and arginine decarboxylase activity in wheat exposed to osmotic stress

The activity of L-arginine decarboxylase (ADC: EC 4.1.1.19)and polyamine content were examine in intact wheat plants ( Triticum aestivum L. cv. Sappo) exposed to osmotic stress (0.4 M mannitol) for 5 days. ADC activity was increased in first and second leaves and in roots of mannitol-stressed plants. Concentrations of putrescine, cadaverine and spermine were generally increased in leaves and roots of plants exposed to mannitol, whereas spermidine was reduced in first leaves and roots of these plants. In an attempt to determine the localization of mannitol in stressed wheat. ¹⁴C-mannitol was fed to plants grown in liquid culture. Most of the mannitol was detected in roots (84%), while small amounts were found in first (9%) and second (7%) leves.
Since it seemed possible that some of the effects on polyamine metabolism caused by exposure to mannitol could have been the result of water stress. polyamine metabolism was also studied in plants water stressed by exposure to 2% polyethylene glycol (PEG) 4000. ADC activity was not altered by exposure to PEG. but concentrations of putrescine, spermidine and spermine were generally reduced in leaves and roots of stressed plants. Cadaverine concentrations were not significantly affected by exposure to PEG. Spermidine and spermine concentrations were reduced in first and second leaves but remained unchanged in roots of plants exposed to PEG.     

Relationship between osmotic stress and polyamines conjugated to the deoxyribonucleic acid-protein in wheat seedling roots

The contents of covalently conjugated polyamines (CC-PAs) and noncovalently conjugated polyamines (NCC-PAs) to deoxyribonucleic acid-protein (DNP) isolated from wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedling roots under osmotic stress were detected. Results showed that after osmotic stress treatment for 7 d, the levels in NCC-spermine (NCC-Spm) and NCC-spermidine (NCC-Spd) of drought-tolerant Yumai No. 18 cv. increased more markedly than that of drought-sensitive Yangmai No. 9 cv., while the NCC-putrescine (NCC-Put) could not be statistically detected in two cultivars. Exogenous Spm treatment alleviated osmotic stress injury to Yangmai No. 9 cv. seedlings, coupled with marked increases of NCC-Spm and NCC-Spd levels of this cultivar. Under PEG osmotic stress, the concomitant treatment of drought-tolerant Yumai No. 18 cv.seedlings with methylglyoxyl-bis (guanylhydrazone) (MGBG), an inhibitor of S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (SAMDC), aggravated osmotic stress injury to this cultivar, coupled with market decreases of the NCC-Spm and NCC-Spd levels. The levels in CC-Put and CC-Spd of drought-tolerant Yumai No. 18 cv. increased more markedly than that of drought-sensitive Yangmai No. 9 cv. Under osmotic stress. The treatment of drought-tolerant Yumai No. 18 cv. seedlings with phenanthrolin (o-Phen), an inhibitor of transglutaminase (TGase), aggravated osmotic stress injury to this cultivar, coupled with a reduction of sum contents of CC-Put+CC-Spd. These results suggested that NCC-Spm and NCC-Spd, together with CC-Put and CC-Spd, in DNP of roots could enhance tolerance of the wheat seedlings to osmotic stress.     

Response of wheat seedlings to short-term drought stress with particular respect to nitrate utilization

Abstract. The effect of short-term changes in the water potential (from 0 to – 2.5 MPa) by addition of PEG 4000 to the nutrient solution was investigated with respect to nitrate uptake and reduction in 3-week-old wheat plants ( Triticum aestivum , cv Fidel). Plants were harvested at the end of 12-h treatments in the dark. The water potential of the mature leaves was similar to that of the medium down to – 0.8 MPa and was maintained at this level even though the external water potential was much lower. The medium water potential of 0.8 was a threshold level below which elongation of the youngest leaf was inhibited. Increase of the PEG concentration in the medium brought about a decrease of evapotranspiration and enhancement of nitrate uptake. No difference in the rate of nitrate reduction was observed, although the in vitro nitrate reductase activity was lowered. Nitrate accumulation in the shoot was ascribed both to the stimulation of net uptake from the medium, and to the mobilization and translocation of nitrate from the root. It is suggested that increase in the storage pool of nitrate in shoots was related to the role of NO₃⁻ as an osmoticum.     

Base and optimum temperatures vary with genotype and stage of development in wheat

Some assumptions concerning development in wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.) were examined. These are that (i) the rate of development towards anthesis increases linearly with temperature, (ii) the base temperature is 0°C, (iii) the optimum temperature is above the range at which wheat is normally grown, (iv) base and optimum temperatures do not change with development, and (v) the relationships for different cultivars are similar. We tested these assumptions in studies using a naturally lit phytotron with four cultivars and six temperature regimes between 10 and 25°C. Seedlings were vernalized for 50 d and then grown under a photoperiod of 18 h to avoid confounding the responses to vernalization and photoperiod with those to temperature. In cultivars Sunset and Rosella, the rate of development for the full period to anthesis increased linearly between base and optimum temperatures. However, in cultivars Condor and Cappelle Desprez, a linear fit was not statistically acceptable. For these cultivars, the rate of development towards anthesis increased rapidly with increase in temperature from 10 to 19°C, but temperatures higher than 19°C had little or no fürther accelerating effect. When a linear relationship was fitted by ignoring data for temperatures above 19 7deg;C, base temperatures calculated for the full period to anthesis were c. 5.5, 5.5,4.0 and 2.5°C for Sunset, Condor, Rosella and Cappelle Desprez, respectively (i.e. an average value of c. 4 7deg;C). The full period to anthesis was subdivided into three phases for fürther analysis. These were (i) from the beginning of the experiment to terminal spikelet initiation, (ii) from terminal spikelet initiation to heading, and (iii) from heading to anthesis. When these sub-phases were analysed a linear relationship was found to be appropriate for all combinations of cultivar and developmental phase. However, both base and optimum temperatures calculated from the relationships increased as development progressed from (i) to (iii). Averaging across cultivars, base temperatures for the three phases were -1.9, %1.2 and %8.1°C, respectively, while optimum temperatures were <22, 25 and >25°C, respectively. Cultivars differed substantially in all these parameters. The progressive increase in optimum temperature with phasic development was apparently the main reason why linear fits for the three sub-phases became a curvilinear fit for the full phase to anthesis.     

小麦非结构性碳水化合物分配对水分胁迫的生理响应

以‘西旱2号’小麦为试材,采用水分胁迫和复水处理方法,研究了小麦发育过程中不同水分胁迫下非结构性碳水化合物(NSC)在小麦旗叶、茎、叶鞘等器官中的动态变化,以及籽粒中碳代谢相关酶(可溶性淀粉合成酶SSS和淀粉粒结合态合成酶GBSS)活性的变化.结果表明:不同程度水分胁迫对小麦旗叶、茎、叶鞘等器官中蔗糖含量无显著影响.随水分胁迫的深入,花后12～ 18 d旗叶中淀粉含量显著增加;水分胁迫缩短了花后茎和叶鞘中淀粉的积累时间,抑制了茎中淀粉的转化和分配;而叶鞘中淀粉的积累逐渐增大,在中度水分胁迫下积累提前终止.在水分胁迫初期,各营养器官中的NSC含量为旗叶＞茎＞叶鞘;随着水分胁迫的深入,各营养器官中的NSC含量为茎＞旗叶＞叶鞘.小麦主要营养器官中NSC的分配速率及主要代谢酶的变化可能是小麦对水分胁迫的一种生理调节反应.     

Overaccumulation of glycine betaine alleviates the negative effects of salt stress in wheat

To investigate the physiological mechanisms of glycinebetaine (GB) involved in the improvement of salt tolerance of wheat, three transgenic wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) lines-T1, T4, and T6-and the wild-type (WT) line Shi4185 were used. The transgenic lines were generated by introducing the BADH gene encoding betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase, which was cloned from Atriplex hortensis L. The BADH gene induced overexpression of GB in transgenic lines. Salt stress was induced by adding 200 mM NaCl, and the osmotic adjustment (OA), ion homeostasis, and antioxidant characteristics of wheat plants were observed. Under salt stress, the OA in the transgenic wheat lines was significantly higher than that in WT; this may be attributed to GB itself and/or the GB-induced overaccumulation of other osmolytes, such as free proline, soluble protein, and soluble sugar. Moreover, the transgenic lines could maintain the lower Na⁺ and Cl⁻ concentrations in their leaves by accumulating these ions in the sheaths in order to protect the leaves from ion toxicity; however, these lines maintained a higher K⁺ concentration in the leaves since K⁺ functions as an osmolyte and maintains ion homeostasis in the leaf cells. Furthermore, the in vivo overaccumulated GB could enhance or stabilize the activity of antioxidant enzymes that can scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitigate oxidative damage of biomembranes. The experimental results suggest that GB overexpression can enhance the salt tolerance of transgenic plants by regulating ion homeostasis, enhancing OA, and scavenging ROS. Published in Russian in Fiziologiya Rastenii, 2009, vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 410–417. This text was submitted by the authors in English.     

Physiological mechanisms of adaptation of alloplasmic wheat hybrids to soil drought

We studied physiological mechanisms of plant adaptation to drought for two alloplasmic wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) hybrids (APHs) on the cytoplasm of rye (Secale cereale L.) or ovate goatgrass (Aegilops ovata L.) and two standard regionalized spring wheat cultivars, Kometa and Priokskaya. In response to plant tissue dehydration, APHs rapidly reduced the transpiration rate and lost much less water than standard cultivars. During drought, peroxidase activity was significantly increased only in APH on the rye cytoplasm, whereas it declined substantially in cv. Kometa. Peroxidation of lipids (POL) was activated in cv. Kometa stronger than in hybrids, which also indicates that, in this cultivar, there was no complete detoxification of hydrogen peroxide under stress conditions. After watering resumption, APHs displayed a better capacity for reparation than standard cultivars, which was manifested in peroxidase activation and POL suppression, i.e., in more complete reduction of the oxidative stress consequences. We concluded that a higher APH drought resistance, as compared with standard cultivars, was determined by their more efficient antioxidant defense and a better capacity for recovery.