Subsistence hunting and bushmeat exploitation in central-western Tanzania

An ethnozoological research was carried out in the Tabora District (central-western Tanzania) from December '95 to February '96, to gather information on the sustainable exploitation of wildlife there and to outline the zoological culture of the native people (the Banyamwezi). The objective was to describe the hunting activity and the techniques employed in capturing wild mammals and to gather quantitative data on game harvest. An inventory of the mammal species living in the study area was conducted by three different methods: (1) direct field observation of animals and their tracks; (2) identification of animals captured by the villagers; (3) interviews with the hunters. The activities of 10 local hunters from seven villages were followed during a nine week period. The number of mammals killed and the techniques used for each species were recorded. Other data were collected through interviews of the villagers and concerned (1) the use of every species as food or for other purposes; (2) the species considered as pests; (3) the best places and time for hunting the different species; (4) the time spent hunting them; (5) the food restrictions and taboos; (6) the extent of the bushmeat market (quantity, price, etc.). A total of 236 animals belonging to 37 species were killed during the study period with the following breakdown into taxonomic groups: Bovidae (44.06%), Carnivora (22.88%), Lagomorpha (8.05%), Rodentia (7.2%), diurnal Primates (5.93%), Insectivora (4.23%), Hyracoidea (0.84%), nocturnal Primates (0.84%), Hippopotamidae (0.42%) and Pholidota (0.42%). Four different techniques were used by local hunters in the study area: guns (53.81%), traps (19.06%), spears (11.01%) and dogs (16.01%). Poaching is rampant because of the scarcity of ranger staff and vehicles for patrolling.     

Subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in central Amazonia, Brazil

Subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in central Amazonia, Brazil, was studied from September 1993 to October 1994 to assess the current levels of resource exploitation. Hunting effort, harvesting yields and species composition of the hunt were recorded daily in five villages varying in number of people, location and age of the settlement. The Waimiri Atroari harvested a total of 3004 individuals of 41 species in one year. Lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), collared peccary (T. tajacu) and spider monkey (Ateles paniscus) represented 87% of the total yearly game weight. Sex ratios of spider monkeys killed were heavily biased towards females indicating a stronger hunting pressure on those individuals. Harvesting yields was proportional to hunting efforts indicating no evident game depletion in the study period. However, capture per unit of effort was significantly different among villages. Differences in total game mass harvested may be explained by local resource depletion associated with age and size of the settlement. However, this relationship is confounded by the capacity of some villages to exploit distant hunting sites. Data obtained in one village showed that harvest rates were higher in hunting sites located far from settlement indicating game depletion in hunting sites surrounding the village.     

Subsistence hunting and conservation issues in the game reserve of Gile, Mozambique

Ethnozoological research was conducted to gather information on the hunting activities and their relevance for the subsistence of local people in 8 villages around the game reserve of Gile, Mozambique. Two series of data were gathered by questionnaires to: (a) 510 householders from eight villages located in the outskirts of the Reserve; (b) 10 hunters from the village of Gile, the main centre of the study area. Several hunting techniques were recorded: spears, nets, traps (including gin-traps) and wildfires, while the use of guns did not appear relevant. The importance of subsistence hunting for local people was underlined by the high percentage of respondents who declared that they usually conduct this activity and sell bushmeat. The proportion of hunters per village was related to the village size but not to its geographical location of villages and the household composition. A positive relationship existed between the proportion of hunters, crop production and fishing activities, indicating that hunting is part of an integrated system of subsistence activities. Most animals harvested were mammals (89.5%, of which 46.7% were ungulates) and most were captured within the Reserve (96%). A higher percentage of animals was sold (56%), representing a relevant income source for the villagers. Small animals were mainly captured by traps during solitary hunting, medium-sized animals in collective net hunting; larger prey were captured by gin-traps adopted by both solitary and collective hunting. In the diet of the local people wild animals represented a higher protein source than domestic animals.     

广西田东中山遗址洞外岩厦出土动物骨骼的初步研究

对广西田东中山遗址洞外岩厦出土动物骨骼遗存的研究表明,该批动物遗存至少代表39个属种。中山遗址原始居民以此地作为居住地,会到远处进行狩猎,其生业模式以狩猎为主;对骨骼的利用尚处在初级阶段,未发现精细的加工方式。动物骨骼遗存均来自野生动物,原始居民未开始饲养家畜。当时的中山遗址地处以林缘灌丛、低山森林景观为主的山间盆地中,不远处有成片的草地,并分布着一定面积的水域。这些信息对探讨中国华南地区旧石器时代晚期至新石器时代早期人类的生存行为、生境状况及演化特征等具有重要意义。     

Variation in Swidden practices in four central Brazilian Indian societies

It has been suggested that indigenous tropical forest agriculture, in contrast with other agricultural systems, is characterized by a high degree of polyculture, and, being similar in diversity to the forest itself, has little disturbing effect on the generalized ecosystem that surrounds native gardens. Our comparative study of four Central Brazilian Indian groups shows, however, that while each of these groups practices polyculture to some extent, the crop mix found in their swidden plots is highly patterned, and includes single crop stands at certain stages of garden life. Different crops are planted in the same swidden plot from year to year, in accordance with variation in soil fertility within the swidden cycle. None of the swiddens we observed compares in complexity to the surrounding forest. We suggest that polyculture, rather than being regarded as the distinguishing characteristic of swidden cultivation, should be considered as a varying dimension—along with other variables such as use of wild plants, soil fertility and exhaustion, tillage practices, the introduction of novel crops, and production for the market—within the overall subsistence strategy of a group.     

Choice and constraint in a Papua New Guinean food quest

Historical factors and lineage affiliation are interpreted as constraining choice of sweet potato or sago as a major source of starch by Etolo family groups. The annual scheduling regime encouraged an association between the primary mode of starch production and the primary technique for obtaining game mammals. An emphasis upon sweet potato was linked to trapping and an emphasis upon sago was linked to hunting. For larger family groups whose membership was older, the preceding constraints were relaxed. By manipulating residential affiliation or the composition of economic units, people could offset constraints of history, lineage affiliation, and family size. Within the framework of those constraints there was much flexibility in the food-getting choices people made. At the level of household communities, trapping and hunting behavior were not obviously patterned around concerns of available prey or energetic efficiency.     

A comparison of the efficiencies of the shotgun and the bow in neotropical forest hunting

Whenever introduced into Amazonia and its neighboring regions, the shotgun has quickly replaced the bow and arrow and other aboriginal weapons of the hunt. The quick and widespread adoption of the shotgun is plainly a matter of its superiority over most aboriginal weapons. This paper compares the hunting efficiencies of the shotgun and the bow by means of a controlled field experiment among the Ye'kwana and Yanomamö Indians of the Upper Orinoco River of southern Venezuela. It also examines the impact of the shotgun on local animal populations and the economic changes brought about by the need to cash-crop in order to purchase Western hunting technology.Funds for the research and writing of this paper were made possible by an NIMH predoctoral fellowship to Napoleon A. Chagnon, Grant No. NIMH 5 R01 MH 26008-SSR.     

Efficiency and focus of blowpipe hunting among Semaq Beri Hunter-Gatherers of Peninsular Malaysia

This paper presents quantitative data on blowpipe hunting among the Semaq Beri, a group of the aboriginal peoples of Peninsular Malaysia, with special reference to daily activity rhythms, space use, efforts, and efficiency of hunting. The role of hunting is examined in the diet of the population studied, which is in transition from a nomadic to a sedentary lifestyle. The special hunting focus on a few species (the leaf monkeys, Presbytis spp.) is examined in relation to ecology of prey items and using the optimal diet breadth model. Technological efficiencies of the Semaq Beri blowpipe and dart are compared with the Waorani of Ecuador.     

Big-game,small-game,and gamebird hunting in New Zealand: Hunting effort,harvest, and expenditure in 1988

Abstract

A postal survey of 8639 licensed firearm owners in 1989 indicated that an estimated 117 200 ± 6300 New Zealanders (3.5% of the total population) did some hunting in 1988. An estimated 33 100 former hunters did not hunt in 1988 but thought it likely that they would hunt again in future. The survey provided useful estimates of 1988 national totals for hunting effort (4.4 million hunter days), gross expenditure ($NZ100 million), and harvest (6.5 million animals).

Small-game hunting dominated, involving 81% of hunters, 59% of total hunting effort, and 86% of total numerical harvest: rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) each comprised 40% of the national bag. Gamebird hunting involved 48% of hunters, 19% of effort, and 11% of total harvest: ducks comprised 73% of the gamebird harvest. Although big-game hunting attracted the fewest hunters (42%) it ranked second for hunting effort (21%). Big game formed 3% of the total numerical harvest: pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra hircus), and red deer (Cervus elaphus scoticus) were the most commonly taken. Big-game were estimated to comprise 49% of total harvest biomass, followed by small-game (47%), and gamebirds (4%). Most deer (nearly 60%) were taken for recreation, with helicopter-based hunting accounting for only one-third the total deer harvest.

A quarter of those people hunting in 1988 hunted on five or fewer days that year, and a relatively small group of mainly professional hunters accounted for a disproportionately large share of the overall harvest Hunters reported spending an average of $851 each on hunting in 1988. Expenditure on big-game comprised 44% of the total, small-game 23%, and gamebirds 33%. Expenditure per animal harvested or per day hunted was greater for big-game animals (other than goats) than for gamebirds, which were more expensive to hunt than small-game. Total hunting effort was inversely related to the average expenditure per animal harvested, regardless of the type of game.     

Optimization theory and pre-columbian hunting in the Tehuacan Valley

Previous analyses of faunal remains from highland Mesoamerican sites have viewed implied changes in animal exploitation patterns as a secondary consequence of early agricultural practices. This paper argues that faunal data from the Tehuacan Valley, when interpreted within an optimization framework provide evidence for the alteration of optimal meat harvesting strategies through time by communities responding to a variety of socioenvironmental factors: seasonal and long-term availability of game, access to domestic meat resources, human meat demand levels, and scheduling constraints.     

Seasonal abundance, reproduction and hunting of common quail Coturnix coturnix in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

This study investigated the potential overlap between breeding and hunting seasons for a population of common quail Coturnix coturnix in the Alexandria District. Seasonal abundance (assessed as the number of birds flushed per unit effort), sex ratios and reproductive condition (based on gonad sizes) of the quail were measured over a period of 16 months, including two hunting seasons. Hunting impacts were assessed in terms of the number of birds killed per unit of hunting effort. Quail exhibited a spring peak in abundance and reproduction, which coincided with the legal hunting season, and bird numbers varied markedly between years. Sex ratio varied, with males dominating early in spring. Hunters killed nearly 60% of the birds flushed, and hunter efficiency was positively correlated with the abundance of quail. These results confirm the dilemma for managers, as quail are currently hunted during the main breeding season and offtakes are high. The development of management strategies is hampered by a lack of understanding of the population biology and ecology, and impacts of hunting. A number of possible hunting strategies are discussed. Since current harvests may not be sustainable, further research is necessary.     

Notes on Bursera in South America,including a new species. Studies in Neotropical Burseraceae VII

Bursera inversa is the first new species of the genus to be described from South America in 90 years. The ecology of this species is remarkable because it is a large (to 25 m × 40 cm or greater) canopy tree of primary moist to wet lowland forest. It is easily distinguished from its congeners by its large, obovoid fruits and bony pyrene. A key to the South American species ofBursera is provided.     

Small pack size imposes a trade-off between hunting and pup-guarding in the painted hunting dog Lycaon pictus

The painted hunting dog or African wild dog, Lycaon pictus,is one of the most endangered large carnivores in Africa, withextinction predicted within a few decades if their dramaticdecline is not stopped. It has recently been hypothesized thatbecause of their constraining need for helpers, group sizewas of major importance in obligate cooperative breeding species,and that the resulting likely existence of a threshold numberof adults could create an Allee effect, increasing the groupextinction risk. One example where the importance for a criticalnumber of adults may have major repercussions for painted huntingdogs concerns baby-sitting, or pup-guarding, a behavior typicalof obligate cooperative breeders. We propose that, as forgoingthis behavior is costly because pup guards have the potentialto decrease pup mortality, its use is costly too, especiallyin small packs, because helpers are strongly needed for theircooperative foraging (hunting, protecting the kill and bringingback food to the pups). We present a simple model showing howpup-guarding imposes a cost because it implies that less foodper hunt is brought back to more individuals at the den. Wecomplete these analyses with empirical tests of the effectof pack size on the probability of pup-guarding, from fielddata from the Hwange population in Zimbabwe. Our model, aswell as our 5 years of empirical data, both suggest a criticalthreshold at a size of about five individuals.     

Diversity and productivity of plant communities across the Inland Northwest,USA

No definitive explanation for the form of the relationship between species diversity and ecosystem productivity exists nor is there agreement on the mechanisms linking diversity and productivity across scales. Here, we examine changes in the form of the diversity–productivity relationship within and across the plant communities at three observational scales: plots, alliances, and physiognomic vegetation types (PVTs). Vascular plant richness data are from 4,760 20 m² vegetation field plots. Productivity estimates in grams carbon per square meter are from annual net primary productivity (ANPP) models. Analyses with generalized linear models confirm scale dependence in the species diversity–productivity relationship. At the plot focus, the observed diversity–productivity relationship was weak. When plot data were aggregated to a focus of vegetation alliances, a hump-shaped relationship was observed. Species turnover among plots cannot explain the observed hump-shaped relationship at the alliance focus because we used mean plot richness across plots as our index of species richness for alliances and PVTs. The sorting of alliances along the productivity gradient appears to follow regional patterns of moisture availability, with alliances that occupy dry environments occurring within the increasing phase of the hump-shaped pattern, alliances that occupy mesic to hydric environments occurring near the top or in the decreasing phase of the curve, and alliances that occupy the wettest environments having the fewest species and the highest ANPP. This pattern is consistent with the intermediate productivity theory but appears to be inconsistent with the predictions of water–energy theory.     

Sentient Beings and Wildlife Resources: Inuit,Beluga Whales and Management Regimes in the Canadian Arctic

Beluga whale hunting is one of the most social subsistence hunting activities to take place in the Canadian Arctic. Through the harvest, distribution and consumption of beluga whales, Inuit identity and social relationships are affirmed. The whale-hunting complex is influenced by beliefs that beluga whales are sentient beings who inhabit a shared social space with humans. Yet, across the region beluga whales are perceived by wildlife managers as scarce resources and as such require protection through the imposition of management plans. There is currently no management of whales on the west coast of Hudson Bay, in Nunavut. In 2002, Inuit there were requested to sell part of their whale harvest to Inuit in Nunavik, northern Quebec, where hunting quotas exist. The outcome of this event was concern in Nunavut for the future of the whale hunt, and a deepening sense of powerlessness in Nunavik due to the management of the whale harvest.

Varietal mixtures: a viable strategy for sustainable productivity in subsistence agriculture

Remarkable parallels link the development of varietal mixtures across subsistence farming systems. Mixtures are grown and persist because they prolong harvest and income flow and provide diversity of diet. From our review of research on agronomic and disease aspects of mixtures in modern agriculture, it is also clear that improved stability and decreased disease severity are common features of mixtures relative to their components in monoculture. Such advantages are of value to both modern and subsistence agriculture. However, in the majority of cases, the yield advantage of mixtures is small. Overall, we conclude that varietal mixtures are presently a viable strategy for sustainable productivity in subsistence agriculture, have potential for improvement without sacrifice of diversity, are an important resource for future global food production and may have an expanding role in modern agriculture in situations where qualitative uniformity is not the guiding priority.     

Fish and limnology of a thermal water environment in subtropical South America

Two thermal sources with water temperatures from 51 to 59°C flow into a stream of 2 to 5 m width and about 0.5 m depth at Agua Caliente (23° 44′, 64° 38′) in Jujuy province, Argentina. Data from 3 years sampling show that the influence of the thermal sources maintains the water temperature of the stream section at a high and constant level (from 24 to 35°C), different from the thermal regime of other streams in the area. Composition of water (N=13) has the following mean values: pH 8.36, conductivity 1591 μS cm^-1, dominant ions (in mg l^-1) CO₃ ^-- 12.77, CO₃H^- 140.27, Cl^- 246.86, SO₄ ^-- 460.14, Na⁺ 400.45, K⁺ 2.18, Ca⁺⁺ 27.68 and Mg⁺⁺ 2.14. Mean total dissolved solids: 1.3 g l^-1. Large amounts of SO₄ ^--, Na⁺, and Cl^- Sixteen fish species (2460 specimens) were captured in the warmed reach. Dominant families were Characidae, Cichlidae and Loricariidae. New geographic distribution information is provided for eight species, some of them with restricted northwestern Argentina distributions. Most abundant species were the eurytopic characid Astyanax bimaculatus, followed by the cichlid Bujurquina vittata. These species have the highest critical thermal maximum according to field experiments. Temperature of acclimatization is closer to lethal than in fishes from ‘normal’ habitats. Agua Caliente differs from other thermal habitats in the lack of isolation, its placement in a rain forest area, a high number of species, and the lack of cyprinodontoids. The fish fauna here represents an opportunistic invasion of a habitat with water parameters strongly different from those in the area, particularly temperature and salinity. Both faunistic and limnological traits make of Agua Caliente a new type of environment within the subtropics. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Ticks (Ixodidae) on humans in South America

Twenty eight species of Ixodidae have been found on man in South America (21 Amblyomma, 1 Boophilus, 2 Dermacentor, 2 Haemaphysalis, 1 Ixodes and 1 Rhipicephalus species). Most of them are rarely found on man. However, three species frequently parasitize humans in restricted areas of Argentina (A. neumanni reported from 46 localities), Uruguay (A. triste from 21 sites) and Argentina–Brazil (A. parvum from 27 localities). The most widespread ticks are A. cajennense (134 localities in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Suriname and Venezuela), A. ovale (37 localities in Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Suriname and Venezuela) and A. oblongoguttatum (28 sites in Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela). Amblyomma aureolatum (18 localities in Argentina, Brazil, French Guiana and Paraguay), A. cajennense, and A. triste are vectors of rickettsioses to man in South America. A better understanding of the respective roles of these and other tick species in transmitting pathogens to humans will require further local investigations. Amblyomma ticks should be the main subjects of these studies followed by species of Boophilus, Dermacentor, Haemaphysalis and Rhipicephalus species. In contrast with North America, Europe and Asia, ticks of the genus Ixodes do not appear to be major players in transmitting diseases to human. Indeed, there is only one record of an Ixodes collected while feeding on man for all South America.