Late Holocene landscape development around a Roman Iron Age mass grave,Alken Enge,Denmark

Sediments from the small lake Ilsø situated in the Illerup/Alken Enge Valley were studied in order to investigate past landscape development at the time of a probably ritual human mass burial following battle during the Roman Iron Age (ad 1–400). A pollen record from Ilsø and a number of other records from Jutland were combined using the Landscape Reconstruction Algorithm to reconstruct local vegetation changes through the last 2,800 years. These methods were supplemented by studies of catchment-related geochemistry of the Ilsø lake sediments. The results show a marked reforestation event associated with a strong decrease in erosion levels at the very beginning of the first century ad, contemporaneous with the finds of human remains at Alken Enge. Comparison with a pollen record 10 km away and with those from other sites, reveals that this reforestation occurs unusually early and rapidly, and is an unparalleled development in a Danish context. We suggest that the major landscape changes at the beginning of the Roman Iron Age and forest cover for the next few centuries comprise a possible example of ritual control of local land-use.     

Boreal forest dynamics in north-eastern Sweden during the last 10,000 years based on pollen analysis

A pollen record obtained from a 2.2-m sediment succession deposited in a small lake in the province of Västerbotten, north-eastern Sweden, reveals the presence of continuous forest cover since 8,500 calendar years before present (cal b.p.). Forest with abundant Pinus (pine) and Betula (birch) initially colonized the area, followed by a dominance of deciduous trees, primarily Betula, from ca. 8,000 to ca. 3,200 cal b.p. Pollen accumulation rates of Quercus (oak), Ulmus (elm) and Tilia (linden) suggest the possible local presence of these thermophilous tree species during this period. The climate gradually became colder and moister around 3,500 cal b.p. and an increased abundance of Sphagnum spores indicates paludification. Picea (spruce) became established around 3,200 cal b.p. and less than 500 years later this was the dominant tree species around the lake. The fire frequency as inferred from charcoal particles exhibits a general increase from ca. 3,000 cal b.p. with subsequent charcoal accumulation maxima at around 2,800 cal b.p., 1,700 cal b.p. and in recent time. The human influence on vegetation was significant during the last 200–300 years. Soil erosion increased substantially and fern spores amount to ca. 55% of the total pollen assemblage in the uppermost samples. These results suggest an extensive anthropogenic impact on the local forest ecosystem, with abundant logging, burning and ditching in the vicinity of the lake. Independent evidence of sub-recent human-induced environmental change is provided by historical accounts. Complementary information on catchment soil development and aquatic nutrient status was provided by records of magnetic susceptibility and elemental carbon, and nitrogen contents obtained from the same sediment core.     

Seven Millennia of human impact as reflected in a high resolution pollen profile from the profundal sediments of Litzelsee,Lake Constance region,Germany

A profundal core from Litzelsee, a small cirque lake in the western Lake Constance region, was investigated by pollen analysis and dated radiometrically. The upper part of the core, chronologically between 5000 cal bc and 1850 ad, was sampled continuously, resulting in a total of 449 samples, each with a sum of 1,000 arboreal pollen grains. Also in this huge data set, rare taxa, normally lacking or very scarce in pollen profiles, were registered. The ecological evaluation of these, with a focus on anthropogenic indicators, sheds light on environmental and human impact history from the Neolithic to Modern times. Further, the results are put in a regional context, together with seven other mostly unpublished pollen profiles studied in the same way.     

Neolithic land use in the northern Boreal zone: high-resolution multiproxy analyses from Lake Huhdasjärvi,south-eastern Finland

Two high-resolution pollen and charcoal analyses were constructed from sediments obtained from a small bay in eastern Finland in order to gain information on human activity during the Neolithic Stone Age, 5200–1800 bc. We used measurements of loss on ignition (LOI), magnetic susceptibility and geochemical analyses to describe the sedimentological characteristics. Palaeomagnetic dating and measurements of ¹³⁷Cs-activity were supported by ¹⁴C-datings. The analyses revealed human activity between 4400 and 3200 bc, which is synchronous with archaeological cultures defined through different stages of Comb Ware pottery types and Middle Neolithic pottery types with asbestos as a primary temper. Direct evidence of Hordeum cultivation was dated to 4040–3930 cal bc. According to the pollen data, more significant effort was put into the production of fibres from hemp and lime than the actual cultivation of food.     

Earliest evidence of a primitive cultivar of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis vinifera</Emphasis> L. during the Bronze Age in Sardinia (Italy)

The discovery of the Nuragic culture settlement of Sa Osa, Cabras-Oristano, Sardinia, has made it possible to investigate the domestication status of waterlogged uncharred grape pips that were recovered from three wells dating from the Middle and Late Bronze Age (ca. 1350–1150 bc). Applying the stepwise linear discriminant analysis method, a morphological comparison of archaeological seeds and modern wild and cultivated Sardinian grapes pips was performed to determine the similarities between them. The results showed that the archaeological seeds from the Middle Bronze Age have intermediate morphological traits between modern wild and cultivated grape pips from Sardinia. In contrast, the analyses performed on the archaeological seeds from the Late Bronze Age showed a high degree of similarity with the modern cultivars in Sardinia. These results provide the first evidence of primitive cultivated Vitis vinifera in Sardinia during the Late Bronze Age (1286–1115 cal bc, 2σ). This evidence may support the hypothesis that Sardinia could have been a secondary domestication centre of the grapevine, due to the presence of ancient cultivars that still exhibit the phenotypic characteristics of wild grapes.     

Using quantitative pollen-based land-cover estimations and a spatial CA_Markov model to reconstruct the development of cultural landscape at Rõuge,South Estonia

Quantitative pollen-based land-cover reconstruction covering the last 4,000 years was performed using transformation coefficients derived from a modern pollen land-cover database and a palynological record from an annually laminated sequence in Lake Rõuge Tõugjärv. Proportions of four land-cover classes characteristic of cultural landscape were reconstructed: habitation area, arable land, grassland and woodland. A land-use change model using CA_Markov analysis was applied for spatial reconstructions for seven periods: 600 b.c., a.d. 300, 800, 1200, 1700, 1870 and 1940. Historical maps from a.d. 1684, 1870–1899 and 1935 were used for calibration of quantitative estimates and to validate spatial reconstructions. The accuracy of the estimates depends on the availability of modern analogues and differs among land-cover classes, being highest for classes with directly connectable pollen indicator types (arable land, forest) and lowest for settlement areas. Spatial reconstructions produced by the CA_Markov land-cover change model show moderate accordance with historical data. However, the large uncertainties in land-cover input data must be considered in the evaluation of the KIA results of the spatial model. Permanent low intensity, rural land-use in the Rõuge area started at the beginning of the Bronze Age (c. 1800 b.c.). The major increase in the extent of rural land-use took place at the beginning of the 13th century and culminated during the 19th century when c. 90% of the RSAP of Rõuge Tõugjärv was open. During the last century, rural land-use decreased constantly.     

From forest to open pastures and fields: cultural landscape development in western Norway inferred from two pollen records representing different spatial scales of vegetation

The cultural landscape development of a farming community in western Norway was investigated through pollen analyses from a lake and a peat/soil profile. The pollen record from the lake indicates that there was a decrease in arboreal pollen (AP) by the end of the Mesolithic period (ca. 4200 cal b.c.), and that a substantial forest clearance occurred during the Bronze Age (ca. 1500 cal b.c.). The latter, together with grazing indicators and cereals, suggests a widespread establishment of farming. At the beginning of the Roman Iron Age there is an increase in heath communities. The pollen diagram from the peat/soil profile shows the forest clearance in the Bronze Age more clearly than the lake profile. This local pollen diagram is compared with modern pollen samples from mown and grazed localities in western Norway. Both analogue matching and ordination (PCA) indicate that the site was characterised by pastures and cereal fields from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age. An expansion of cereal cultivation took place during the Pre-Roman Iron Age, and an arable field was established at the site after ca. a.d. 800. This investigation illustrates the potential of selecting pollen sites reflecting different spatial scales, and complements the cultural history of the area as inferred from archaeological and historical records.     

Two hundred years of land-use change in the South Swedish Uplands: comparison of historical map-based estimates with a pollen-based reconstruction using the landscape reconstruction algorithm

Long-term records of environmental history at decadal to millennial time-scales enable an assessment of ecosystem variability and responses to past anthropogenic disturbances and are fundamental for the development of environmental management strategies. This study examines the local variability of land-use history in the South Swedish Uplands over the last 200 years based on pollen records from three lake-sediment successions. Temporal changes in the proportional cover of 14 plant taxa were quantified as percentages using the landscape reconstruction algorithm (LRA). The LRA-based estimates of the extent of four land-use categories (cropland, meadows/grassland, wetland, outland/woodland) were compared to corresponding estimates based on historical maps and aerial photographs from ad 1769–1823, 1837–1895, 1946 and 2005. Although the LRA approach tends to overestimate grassland cover by 10–30 % for the two earliest time periods, the reconstructed vegetation composition is generally in good agreement with estimates based on the historical records. Subsequently, the LRA approach was used to reconstruct the 200-year history of local land-use dynamics at 20-year intervals around two small lakes. The qualitative assessment of difference approach, which requires fewer assumptions and parameters than LRA for objective evaluation of between-site differences in plant abundances, provides consistent results in general. Significant differences exist in the land-use history between the sites. Local catchment characteristics, such as soil conditions and wetland cover, appear important for the development of human impact on the landscape. Quantifications of past vegetation dynamics provide information on the amplitude, frequency and duration of the land-use changes and their effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and should be taken into account when nature conservation strategies are developed.     

Bronze Age olive domestication in the north Jordan valley: new morphological evidence for regional complexity in early arboricultural practice from Pella in Jordan

Recent research from the site of Pella in Jordan examines the process and timing of olive cultivation. The frequent presence of olive remains from the Pottery Neolithic, beginning in the Yarmoukian, suggests that exploitation of the olive dates from as early as c. 6200 cal bce, with evidence of oil pressing from at least c. 5200 cal bce. Morphometric data, spanning the Late Neolithic to the Middle Iron Age II, using the measurement of olive endocarp length and width, demonstrates a reduction in the size variation of olive endocarps through time, in addition to an increase in their length, likely the result of selection pressure on trees. At Pella, this change occurs sometime after the Chalcolithic and before the Late Bronze Age, probably post-dating the earliest phases of the Early Bronze Age. Domestication is thus later than Teleilat Ghassul (Jordan), which has the earliest morphological evidence for olive domestication, and suggests that olive domestication was a regionally and temporally diverse process.     

Holocene forest dynamics and human impact in southeastern Estonia

Litho-, chrono- and biostratigraphical methods were applied in the examination of a 9.9 m thick sequence of laminated sediments in Verijärv, a lake in southeast Estonia. The vegetation history, which covers at least the time from 10300 cal b.p. to the present, was inferred from the core, which was taken from the deepest part of the lake and correlated with the studied and dated pollen diagrams nearby. Reconstruction of the past vegetation dynamics is based on pollen percentage, accumulation rate and human impact diagrams. During the Holocene two main shifts in vegetation dynamics occurred, the first one at about 7700 cal b.p. when the pine-birch forest was replaced by deciduous mixed forest, and the second at about 3200 cal b.p. marked by the regeneration of pine-birch-spruce forest. A catastrophic forest fire at about 3450 cal b.p. opened up the landscape and gave rise to erosion and the sedimentation of a thick clayey layer. The steep decline in the Alnus curve between 1500–1650 cal b.p. coincides with the start of the continuous Secale curve and evidence of extensive land-use.     

Determining the responses of vegetation to natural processes and human impacts in north-eastern Poland during the last millennium: combined pollen,geochemical and historical data

Pollen, charcoal and geochemical investigations were carried out on annually laminated sediments of Lake ?abińskie (54°07′54.5″N; 21°59′01.1″E) and the results were combined with historical and climate data to better understand the mechanism behind plant cover transformations. A millennium-long record of environmental history at 6-years time resolution permitted an assessment of vegetation responses to past human impact and climate fluctuations. Our results show that the history of the region with repeated periods of warfare, epidemics, famine and crop failures is well reflected by environmental proxies. Before the Teutonic Order crusade (ad 1230–1283), agricultural activities of the Prussian tribes were conducted at a distance from the studied lake and caused slight disturbances of local forests. A stronger human impact was registered after ca ad 1460. We confirm that co-domination of pine forests with spruce and oak-hornbeam forests on drier habitats as well as the presence of birch and alder woods on wet surfaces near the lake lasted until ad 1610. We identified a transition period of 20 years between ad 1590 and 1610, when forest cover was significantly reduced and the area was partly transformed into open land used for farming activities. The comparison of our data with other pollen datasets from the region confirms significant spatio-temporal differences in the initiation of large-scale woodland clearings in the Great Masurian Lake District. A strong increase in local cultivation was noted after ad 1750 and became even stronger in the period ad 1810–1940. The last 60 years experienced a succession from arable fields and open grasslands to more tree-covered habitats overgrown by birch and alder.     

Mid-Holocene local vegetation dynamics and human impact at Los Castillejos,Andalusia, Spain: evidence from charcoal analysis

From the anthracological study of considerable quantities of charcoal recovered from the excavation of the settlement at Los Castillejos de Montefrío, a synthesis was made of the vegetation dynamics during Recent Prehistory of the area, from the middle of the sixth millennium bc to the beginning of the second millennium bc. The vegetation dynamics mark four anthracological phases over this sequence. From the Late Neolithic (end of the fifth millennium bc) the influence of different activities such as livestock raising, burning and agriculture become evident in the development of the natural vegetation, altering species composition and appearance frequency. The last anthracological phase, MF4, spanning the second half of the third millennium bc, saw the regeneration of the tree vegetation as certain former activities ceased, indicating the environmental singularity of this enclave within the context of the southern Iberian Peninsula.     

Vegetation history and landscape management from 6500 to 1500 cal. b.p. at Lac d’Antre, Gallo-Roman sanctuary of Villards d’Héria, Jura, France

The lake sediment record was used to reconstruct past vegetation dynamics and human impacts from the middle Neolithic (6500 cal. b.p.) to the Middle Ages (1500 cal. b.p.) around Lac d’Antre in the southern Jura mountains of France. This lake was surrounded by the Gallo-Roman sanctuary of Villards d’Héria, which has been widely investigated by archaeologists and enables a comparison between palaeoenvironmental proxies and archaeological data. Pollen and microscopic charcoal analyses were conducted on a 500 cm sediment core with eleven radiocarbon dates providing the chronological control. In a mixed oak woodland context, the successive development of Taxus, Fagus and Abies were mainly caused by climatic variations during the Neolithic, in which there was weak human impact. The first significant signs of human activity were detected during the Bronze Age from 3900 cal. b.p., followed by an increase of human pressure and woodland clearances during the Iron Age, from 2700 cal. b.p. The occupation of the Gallo-Roman sanctuary was continuous with the Iron Age occupation. All the analysed palaeoenvironmental data indicate that the strongest human impact occurred during the Gallo-Roman period, which matches the occupation of Villards d’Héria previously dated by archaeologists from 2000 to 1700 cal. b.p., 1st to 3rd century a.d. Moreover, there appears to have been a new period of human settlement close to the lake at the beginning of the Middle Ages. The low charcoal accumulation rate (CHAR) recorded during the Bronze and Iron Ages suggests that fire was not the main agent used to clear the dense woods to create new cultivated fields and pastures. High CHAR values recorded during the Roman period may represent fire use for domestic and agro-pastoral activities.     

Plant food subsistence in the human diet of the Bronze Age Caspian and Low Don steppe pastoralists: archaeobotanical,isotope and <Superscript>14</Superscript>C data

The paper presents the result of analysis of charred food on the interior part of the vessels from the graves of the East Manych and West Manych Catacomb archaeological cultures (2500–2350 cal bc). The phytolith and pollen analyses identified pollen of wild steppe plants and phytoliths of domesticated gramineous plants determined as barley phytoliths. Direct ¹⁴С dating of one of the samples demonstrates that barley spikelets and stems were used in funeral rites by local steppe communities. However, there are no data suggesting that steppe inhabitants of the Lower Don Region were engaged in agriculture in the mid-3000 bc. Supposedly, barley could have reached the steppes through seasonal migrations of mobile pastoralists to the south, use of North Caucasus grasslands in the economic system of seasonal moves and exchange with local people. Nevertheless, presence of carbonized barley seeds in the occupation layers at North Caucasus settlements of 4000–3000 bc requires confirmation by direct ¹⁴С dating of such samples.     

New insights into vegetation dynamics and settlement history in Hümmling,north-western Germany,with particular reference to the Neolithic

Palynological investigations on two well-dated peat profiles provide insights into Neolithic vegetation and settlement history from Hümmling in north-western Germany. The site selections allow comparisons between local and regional vegetation changes and are used to estimate the extent of Neolithic influence on the vegetation. The interpretation of the fossil spectra relied on radiocarbon dating, evaluation of pollen indicator taxa, non-pollen palynomorphs and multivariate techniques. During the late Mesolithic the vegetation was dominated by mixed oak forests while openings in forest cover were detected, with a decline in elm reflected in the regional pollen record around 4250 cal. b.c. The presence of humans is shown by settlement indicators that are first recorded at ca. 3800 cal. b.c. Vegetation changes were small between 4300 and 3600 cal. b.c. This suggests that regional vegetation was relatively resilient to small-scale disturbances. Possible indications of grazing were recorded in the spectra of the local pollen profile but there is no clear-cut evidence for Neolithic activity. Between 3520 and 2260 cal. b.c. decreases in forest cover were inferred from both profiles and increases in settlement indicators reflect farming activity. These changes coincide with the emergence in the area of the Funnel Beaker Culture and the subsequent Single Grave Culture. Both profiles suggest that settlement probably ceased between ca. 3230 and 3050 cal. b.c. This lull or cessation in activity was probably regional in character. After 2260 cal. b.c. human impact on the vegetation decreases and woodlands regenerate. The longevity of the regeneration phase—ca. 690 years—was probably connected with the low resilient capability of the vegetation on the poor soils.     

From the field to the hearth: plant remains from Neolithic Croatia (ca. 6000–4000 cal <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">bc</Emphasis>)

Until recently the recovery of plant remains in Croatia was rare, resulting in few studies addressing the nature of Neolithic crop cultivation. This paper presents new archaeobotanical data from eleven Neolithic settlements in coastal and continental Croatia. Within continental Croatia, three sites dating to the Star?evo culture (early/middle Neolithic; ca. 6000–5300 cal bc) and six to the Sopot culture (late Neolithic; ca. 5300–4000 cal bc) are examined along with two Hvar culture sites (late Neolithic; ca. 4800–4000 cal bc) located along the coast. Different settlement types are included in the study: open air sites, tells and cave sites. From the data collected the most common crops identified were einkorn, emmer, barley, lentil, pea and flax, as well as the fruits Cornus mas (Cornelian cherry) and Physalis alkekengi (Chinese lantern), which were particularly dominant in the Sopot culture settlements. By examining formation processes, sieved crop processing products and by-products were identified at six of the sites, suggesting that cereals were processed on a day-to-day basis at the household level. In contrast, the remains from the late Neolithic coastal cave site of Turska Pe? suggest two distinct formation processes. At the eastern side of the cave the plant remains suggest that episodes of dung burning occurred, possibly to clear the cave of excess waste during seasonal habitation of the cave by herders and livestock. Towards the back of the cave, cereal remains and higher charcoal densities may suggest an area used for food preparation or cooking.     

New evidence for Neolithic rice cultivation and Holocene environmental change in the Fuzhou Basin,southeast China

A stratified profile of the Zhuangbianshan (ZBS) archaeological site (Fuzhou Basin, Fujian) was studied to investigate Neolithic era anthropogenic influence and associated environmental changes. Analysis of the archaeological sediments focused on phytoliths, palynomorphs and microcharcoal. Until now, a lack of direct evidence for agriculture has made it difficult to know if Neolithic cultures of this area relied on the exploitation of wild plants such as nuts and sago palm, or a combination of farming and foraging. Three types of rice phytoliths were found in ZBS archaeological deposits, providing robust evidence for rice farming as part of a broad-spectrum Neolithic subsistence economy centered on fishing and hunting. Chronologies based on AMS ¹⁴C dates and artifact typology place the earliest rice during the Tanshishan (TSS) Period (5,000–4,300 cal bp) followed by a shift to economic dependency on rice in the Huangguashan (HGS) Period (4,300–3,500 cal bp). The ZBS phytolith assemblage contains high frequencies of rice husk (peaked-shape glume cells) phytoliths, with far fewer leaf and stem types. This indicates late stage processing activities such as dehusking, implying a focus on consumption rather than rice production. High concentrations of charcoal in the Neolithic ZBS deposits indicate local human settlement and peaks in fire use. The ZBS pollen record also reflects human settlement and peaks in local forest clearance during the Neolithic. Forest cover was renewed when the site was temporarily abandoned following the Neolithic. Rapid formation of the Min River floodplain began ~2,000 cal bp in association with retreating sea level and intensifying anthropogenic influence. Prior to that, rice farming in the Fuzhou Basin was limited by the scarcity of wetlands suitable for agriculture.     

Mid-Holocene vegetation dynamics with an early expansion of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mauritia flexuosa</Emphasis> palm trees inferred from the Serra do Tepequém in the savannas of Roraima State in Amazonia,northwestern Brazil

Transition zones between forest and savanna in northern South America are important areas for improving our understanding of ecosystem dynamics and climate change. The uniquely available mid-Holocene sediment deposits from the Serra do Tepequém plateau in Roraima State, northwestern Brazil, were used to analyze past forest-savanna dynamics through pollen, spores, microcharcoal and loss on ignition (LOI). In this newly studied landscape, two distinct periods of vegetation, fire and climate dynamics have been recorded. The first phase from ca. 7,570 to 6,190 cal bp, with the dominance of savanna vegetation in particular with Poaceae and Cyperaceae and some small forest patches with Moraceae/Urticaceae, Alchornea and Schefflera, indicates a relatively dry period. Based on the microcharcoal concentration and influx data, frequent regional fires occurred at that time. The second phase from ca. 6,190 to 4,900 cal bp shows a change in the vegetation composition with an increase of Ilex, Schefflera and Fabaceae. In this period forest expanded, while savanna became reduced, reflecting an increase of wetter conditions. The fire frequency was markedly lower. The first occurrence of Mauritia flexuosa palm was at ca. 7,300 cal bp and an early expansion occurred at around 6,600 cal bp. This early expansion of M. flexuosa showed a development that was in opposition to the increase of fire and savanna expansion found in other regions in northern South America. The increase of wetter conditions in Serra do Tepequém in the mid-Holocene confirms other results found in savannas of Colombia and Venezuela between 7,000 and 6,600 cal bp.     

Prehistoric impact on landscape and vegetation at high altitudes: An integrated palaeoecological and archaeological approach in the eastern Pyrenees (Perafita valley,Andorra)

Abstract

A multi-proxy palaeoenvironmental study (pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs-NPP, macrocharcoal particles) of a small fen located in the Perafita valley (2240 m a.s.l, eastern Pyrenees, Andorra) was undertaken to trace prehistoric human activities related to woodland clearance and past land-uses at high altitudes. The results of this study constrained by 9 AMS radiocarbon measurements are combined with archaeological data and compared with similar research carried out at the same altitude in the adjacent Madriu valley (Andorra). The overall objectives of this article are, first, to formulate different chronological patterns and spatial land-use distribution at a micro-regional scale during prehistory and, second, to discuss different drivers of prehistoric occupation models in the eastern Pyrenean highlands. The palaeoecological study of the Planells de Perafita fen was performed at high temporal resolution, allowing us to focus on detailed prehistoric (mainly Mesolithic and Neolithic) and Bronze Age human activity. It demonstrates that the shaping of this cultural landscape is the result of a long-term land-use history, which began at the late Mesolithic/early Neolithic transition onwards (ca 6400–6100 cal BC). The existence of three main phases of “inter-valley” land-use variability has also been highlighted, thus testifying a complex and heterogeneous upland land-use model during the Neolithic and Bronze Age. These land-use variabilities between the two adjacent Andorran valleys provide the basis for a discussion of the way in which environmental constraints influenced prehistoric land-use spatial organisation and of how the interaction between environmental (including climatic parameters), socio-economic and cultural conditions affected the temporal and spatial dynamics of landscape shaping in the eastern Pyrenean highlands.     

Vegetation dynamics during the early to mid-Holocene transition in NW Malta, human impact versus climatic forcing

A pollen diagram was constructed for the early- to mid-Holocene transition (ca. 7350–5600 cal. b.p./5400–3650 b.c.) from the Burmarrad ria located in NW Malta. The vegetation at ca. 7350–6960 cal. b.p./5400–5010 b.c. was characterized by an almost tree-less steppe-like open landscape. Early Holocene dry climatic conditions were most probably due to intensification of the subtropical monsoon circulation that strengthened the subtropical anticyclonic descent over the central Mediterranean and blocked the penetration of humid air masses from the North Atlantic Ocean. At ca. 6950 cal. b.p./5000 b.c., the steppe-like vegetation was suddenly replaced by a Mediterranean evergreen forest or dense scrub dominated by Pistacia cf. lentiscus trees. This event, which has simultaneously been recorded in southern Sicily, was most probably caused by the southward shift of the ITCZ permitting the eastward movement of the North Atlantic cyclonic systems. Traces of human activities are evident in the pollen diagram since the beginning of the record but become more pronounced from the onset of the Temple Cultural Phase at ca. 6050 cal. b.p./4100 b.c. with a gradual decline of tree pollen. We suggest that the early- to mid-Holocene vegetation transformation was mainly controlled by a regional climatic change that occurred in a landscape only slightly impacted by human activities.