Bird predation selects for wing shape and coloration in a damselfly

Wing shape is related to flight performance, which is expected to be under selection for improving flight behaviours such as predator avoidance. Moreover, wing conspicuousness, usually involved in sexual selection processes, is also relevant in terms of predation risk. In this study, we examined how predation by a passerine bird, the white wagtail Motacilla alba, selects wing shape and wing colour patch size in males of the banded demoiselle Calopteryx splendens. The wing colour patch is intra‐ and intersexually selected in the study species. In a field study, we compared wings of live damselflies to wings of predated damselflies which are always discarded after predation. Based on aerodynamic theory and a previous study on wing shape of territorial tactics in damselflies, we predicted an overall short and broad wing, with a concave front margin shape to be selected by predation. This shape would be expected to improve escaping ability. Moreover, we predicted that wing patch size should be negatively selected by predation. We found that selection operated differently on fore‐ and hindwings. In contrast to our predictions, predation favoured a slender general forewing shape. However, the predicted wing shape was favoured in hindwings. We also found selection favouring a narrower wing colour patch. Our results suggest different roles of fore‐ and hindwings in flight, as previously suggested for Calopteryx damselflies and shown for butterflies and moths. Forewings would be more involved in sustained flight and hindwings in flight manoeuvrability. Our results differ somehow from a recently published work in the same study system, but using another population, suggesting that selection can fluctuate across space, despite the simplicity of this predator–prey system.     

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSES OF WING SIZE,FLIGHT, AND SURVIVAL IN THE WESTERN WHITE BUTTERFLY

Butterflies have distinctively large wings relative to body size, but the functional and fitness consequences of wing size for butterflies are largely unknown. I use natural and experimentally generated variation in wing surface area to examine how decreased wing size affects flight and survival in a population of the western white butterfly, Pontia occidentalis. In the laboratory, experimental reductions in wing area (reduced-wings manipulation) significantly increased wingbeat frequencies of hovering butterflies, whereas a control manipulation had no detectable effects. In contrast, behavioral observations and mark-release-recapture (MRR) studies in the field detected no significant differences in flight activity, initial dispersal rates, or recapture probabilities among treatment groups. Estimated selection coefficients indicated that natural variation in wing size, body mass, and wing loading in the population were not significantly correlated with survival in the two MRR studies. In two mark-recapture studies with manipulated butterflies, survival probabilities were not significantly different for reduced-wings individuals compared with control or unmanipulated individuals. In summary, experimental reductions in wing area significantly altered aspects of flight in the laboratory, but did not detectably alter flight or survival in the field for this population. The large wing size typical of butterflies may reduce the functional and survival consequences of wing size variation within populations.     

Effects of Light Intensity on the Flight Behaviour of Adult <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tirumala limniace</Emphasis> (Cramer) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Danainae)

Light intensity significantly affects insect flight behaviour. Mating of butterflies is significantly associated with flight frequency. However, no research has elucidated the effects of light intensity on butterfly flight. Thus, a clear understanding of the effects of light intensity on flight has significant theoretical implications for the cultivation and utilization of butterflies. We observed the flight behaviour of adult Tirumala limniace (Cramer) exposed to light intensities from 243 to 2240 lx and measured the frequency of flight, take-off rhythm, thoracic temperature excess (△T) when perching and flying, and the tendency for thoracic temperature to increase. Results showed that high-intensity light significantly increased flight activity, and males were more active than females under similar light intensities; strong light (1280–2240 lx) resulted in female and male butterflies taking flight earlier compared with weak light (243–864 lx); and a similar pattern was observed for flight duration, with flights by males being significantly longer than those by females at 864–2240 lx; △T of adults flying in strong light was significantly higher than in weak light, whereas the thoracic temperature of perching adults was similar to the air temperature. Compared with other light intensities, the equilibrium thoracic temperature of adults exposed to 2240 lx was higher, and the time to reach it was shorter; in addition, the △T and rate of thoracic temperature increase were higher and achieved more quickly, respectively. Thus, of the 243–2240 lx range, 2240 lx was the most optimal light intensity for adult T. limniace flight and captive rearing.     

Sex-specific development of avian flight performance under experimentally altered rearing conditions

Numerous studies have examined predation risk resulting fromthe costs of impaired flight performance associated with manykey life-history stages such as reproduction and migration.Interestingly, although avian nestlings experience multipleresource-based physiological trade-offs and undergo considerablemorphological and physiological changes during postnatal development,there is no data available on how nestlings manage the competingdemands of growth and the development of flight ability at thiscritical life-history stage. We examined numerous morphologicaltraits to determine which are responsible for variation in flightperformance in juvenile European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris),a sexually size-dimorphic passerine. We then manipulated maternalquality during chick rearing (via feather clipping) to examinesex-specific sensitivity of fledgling flight performance tothe quality of the rearing environment. Results suggest thatthe mechanics underlying variation in juvenile flight performanceare relatively simple, being principally determined by the ratioof pectoral muscle mass to body mass (BM) and the surface areaof the wings. Interestingly, although the maternal quality manipulationdecreased BM and structural size in daughters, only the flightperformance of sons was negatively affected. Our results suggestthat a survival-related trait can be significantly affectedin the larger sex when raised under stressful conditions. Furthermore,measuring only BM and structural size may not be sufficientin understanding how the sexes are affected by stressful rearingconditions in sexually size-dimorphic species.     

Who flies first? – habitat‐specific phenological shifts of butterflies and orthopterans in the light of climate change: a case study from the south‐east Mediterranean

1. Insects undergo phenological change at different rates, showing no consistent trend between habitats, time periods, species or groups. Understanding how and why this variability occurs is crucial. 2. Phenological patterns of butterflies and Orthoptera were analysed using a novel approach of standardised major axis (SMA) analysis. It was investigated whether: (i) phenology (the mean date and duration of flight) of butterflies and Orthoptera changed from one survey (1998 and 1999 respectively) to another (2011), (ii) the rate at which phenology changed differed between taxa and (iii) phenological change was significantly different across habitat types (agriculture fields, grasslands, and forests). Using the 2011 dataset, we investigated relationships between habitat‐specific variables and species phenology. 3. For both groups, late‐emerging species had an advanced onset on the second survey while the duration showed no consistent trend for butterflies and did not change for Orthoptera. Although the rate at which phenology changed was consistent between the two groups, at the habitat level, a longer duration of flight period emerged for butterflies in agriculture fields while Orthoptera showed no differentiation in flight duration between habitats. We found an earlier emergence of butterflies in grasslands compared to forests, attributed to habitat‐specific temperature, whereas spatial variation in humidity had a significantly lower effect on butterflies' phenology in grasslands compared to forests. A gradual delay of butterfly appearances as the canopy cover increased was also found. 4. The utility of SMA analysis was demonstrated in phenological studies and evidence was detected that both habitat type and habitat‐specific variables refine species' phenological responses.     

The aerodynamic costs of warning signals in palatable mimetic butterflies and their distasteful models

Bates hypothesized that some butterfly species that are palatable gain protection from predation by appearing similar to distasteful butterflies. When undisturbed, distasteful butterflies fly slowly and in a straight line, and palatable Batesian mimics also adopt this nonchalant behaviour. When seized by predators, distasteful butterflies are defended by toxic or nauseous chemicals. Lacking chemical defences, Batesian mimics depend on flight to escape attacks. Here, I demonstrate that flight in warning-coloured mimetic butterflies and their distasteful models is more costly than in closely related non-mimetic butterflies. The increased cost is the result of differences in both wing shape and kinematics. Batesian mimics and their models slow the angular velocity of their wings to enhance the colour signal but at an aerodynamic cost. Moreover, the design for flight in Batesian mimics has an additional energetic cost over that of its models. The added cost may cause Batesian mimics to be rare, explaining a general pattern that Bates first observed.     

Do seed predation and dispersal limit downslope movement of a semi-desert grassland/oak woodland transition?

Abstract. Semi-desert grasslands and dryland forests are typically arranged along elevation gradients, with low elevation grasslands and savannas separated from higher-elevation woodlands by a diffuse boundary. Recent (< 200 yr) woody plant encroachment into adjacent semi-desert grasslands appears to be a cosmopolitan phenomenon, and has been attributed to disturbance by humans (e.g., livestock grazing, fire suppression); however, little is known about rates, patterns and mechanisms. Are observations of increased woody plant abundance in semi-arid grasslands indicative of a downslope shift in the boundary zone? Experimental plots were established in adjacent oak woodlands and semi-desert grasslands in southeastern Arizona, to determine if mechanisms of acorn predation and dispersal would facilitate or limit downslope movement of oak woodlands. We recovered acorns that had been dispersed 50 m into adjacent grasslands, which suggests that they were cached by acorn predators. Acorns in grassland plots were more than twice as likely to escape predation than acorns that remained in woodland or cleared woodland plots. Contrary to previously published research, simulated perturbations (gap formation, understory and below-ground vegetation removal) did not affect seed predation, suggesting that generalizations from mesic, deciduous oak forests may not be accurately extrapolated to xeric, evergreen oak forests. Recently published studies indicate that xeric conditions limit survival of oak seedlings across the boundary zone, suggesting that observed patterns of acorn dispersal and predation provide the potential for colonization of adjacent grassland only during infrequent years with cool, moist conditions during late summer months.     

The adaptive significance of alpine melanism in the butterfly Parnassius phoebus F. (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

Summary The adaptive significance of alpine melanism, the tendancy for insects to become darker with increased elevation and latitude, was investigated using the butterfly Parnassius phoebus. The effects on temperature dependent activity of five components of overall wing melanism, as well as size, were examined. The components of wing melanism examined were the transparency of the basal hindwing and distal fore-wing areas, the width of the black patch in the basal hind-wing area and the proportion of black to white scales in that area, and the proportion of the distal fore-wing covered by predominantly black scaling.The body temperature of dead specimens was correlated with air temperature, solar radiation, the width of the black patch at the base of the wings, and the proportion of black to white scales at the base of the wings. The minimum air temperatures and solar radiation levels required for initiation of flight did not vary with wing melanism of P. phoebus, in contrast to the results found for Colias butterflies by Roland (1982). However, under environmental conditions suitable for flight initiation, males with a higher proportion of black to white scales in the basal area of the hind-wing, and wider basal black patches, spent a greater proportion of time in flight at low air temperatures and low insolation. Increased basal wing melanism was also associated with increased movement of males within a population. In contrast, melanism in the distal area of the wings has no effect on activities which are dependant on body temperature. The amount of time spent feeding did not vary with differences in wing melanism. I suggest that in dorsal basking, slow-flying butterflies (Parnassius) basal wing color affects body temperature primarily during flight (rather than while basking), such that butterflies with darker wing bases cool down less rapidly because they absorb more solar radiation during flight.     

Parasites hinder monarch butterfly flight: implications for disease spread in migratory hosts

Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) are parasitized by the protozoan Ophryocystis elektroscirrha throughout their geographical range. Monarchs inhabiting seasonally fluctuating environments migrate annually, and parasite prevalence is lower among migratory relative to non‐migratory populations. One explanation for this pattern is that long‐distance migration weeds out infected animals, thus reducing parasite prevalence and transmission between generations. In this study we experimentally infected monarchs from a migratory population and recorded their long‐distance flight performance using a tethered flight mill. Results showed that parasitized butterflies exhibited shorter flight distances, slower flight speeds, and lost proportionately more body mass per km flown. Differences between parasitized and unparasitized monarchs were generally not explained by individual variation in wing size, shape, or wing loading, suggesting that poorer flight performance among parasitized hosts was not directly caused by morphological constraints. Effects of parasite infection on powered flight support a role for long‐distance migration in dramatically reducing parasite prevalence in this and other host–pathogen systems.     

Behavioural mimicry in flight path of Batesian intraspecific polymorphic butterfly Papilio polytes

Batesian mimics that show similar coloration to unpalatable models gain a fitness advantage of reduced predation. Beyond physical similarity, mimics often exhibit behaviour similar to their models, further enhancing their protection against predation by mimicking not only the model''s physical appearance but also activity. In butterflies, there is a strong correlation between palatability and flight velocity, but there is only weak correlation between palatability and flight path. Little is known about how Batesian mimics fly. Here, we explored the flight behaviour of four butterfly species/morphs: unpalatable model Pachliopta aristolochiae, mimetic and non-mimetic females of female-limited mimic Papilio polytes, and palatable control Papilio xuthus. We demonstrated that the directional change (DC) generated by wingbeats and the standard deviation of directional change (SDDC) of mimetic females and their models were smaller than those of non-mimetic females and palatable controls. Furthermore, we found no significant difference in flight velocity among all species/morphs. By showing that DC and SDDC of mimetic females resemble those of models, we provide the first evidence for the existence of behavioural mimicry in flight path by a Batesian mimic butterfly.     

Conservation of butterflies in Japan: status, actions and strategy

There are about 240 butterfly species in Japan of which 15% are endangered. Grassland butterflies are the most threatened and have declined most widely, some with an extremely high rate of decline of over 80% in 40 years. The main cause is the change of ??Satoyama?? ecosystems, a traditional landscape including secondary woodlands, grasslands, paddy field and other habitats. However, most ??Satoyama?? ecosystems have been abandoned or destroyed as the landscape has been industrialized. This process has accelerated in recent years, leading to even greater impacts on butterflies. To halt this decline, the Japan Butterfly Conservation Society (JBCS) was founded in 2004 and is doing various crucial activities. Local groups have been formed and numbers have been growing steadily. Also, public awareness toward conservation of the natural environment has been increasing and conservation groups related to ??Satoyama?? exceed 1000. Government policy on biodiversity has developed since The National Biodiversity Strategy of Japan was published in 1995. JBCS has set targets to prevent threatened butterflies from becoming extinct at national and regional level. However, many difficulties remain and a greater effort is needed to develop a social system to maintain ??Satoyama?? as an industry. Although interest in the conservation of Japanese butterflies began several decades ago, full scale conservation activities have only started recently and future progress is expected.     

Predation,thermoregulation, and wing color in pierid butterflies

Summary This paper explores two hypotheses about the relationships among predation, thermoregulation, and wing color in butterflies: First, that butterflies are susceptible to predation during thermally marginal periods (e.g., cool weather) when effective thermoregulation and flight are not possible; second, that Pieris butterflies are relatively unpalatable to visual predators, supporting the idea that the white wing pigment of Pieris represents aposematic coloration. Field experiments with Pieris and Colias in 1984 and 1985 demonstrate that substantial predation may occur during the morning period before butterflies are able to actively fly. Circumstantial evidence is presented to suggest that at least some of the predation is by small, cursorial mammals. Feeding experiments in the field using Grey Jays as predators indicate that Pieris napi and P. occidentalis are less palatable than other sympatric butterflies, including confamial Colias alexandra. These and previous results suggest that Pieris are edible but less preferred as prey by birds, and that the degree of palatibility may vary among Pieris species. The relatively low palatability of these Pieris is consistent with the hypothesis that their white pigmentation represents aposematic coloration; however, the cues by which potential bird predators might discriminate against Pieris have not been established.     

Keeping the band together: evidence for false boundary disruptive coloration in a butterfly

There is a recent surge of evidence supporting disruptive coloration, in which patterns break up the animal's outline through false edges or boundaries, increasing survival in animals by reducing predator detection and/or preventing recognition. Although research has demonstrated that false edges are successful for reducing predation of prey, research into the role of internal false boundaries (i.e. stripes and bands) in reducing predation remains warranted. Many animals have stripes and bands that may function disruptively. Here, we test the possible disruptive function of wing band patterning in a butterfly, Anartia fatima, using artificial paper and plasticine models in Panama. We manipulated the band so that one model type had the band shifted to the wing margin (nondisruptive treatment) and another model had a discontinuous band located on the wing margin (discontinuous edge treatment). We kept the natural wing pattern to represent the false boundary treatment. Across all treatment groups, we standardized the area of colour and used avian visual models to confirm a match between manipulated and natural wing colours. False boundary models had higher survival than either the discontinuous edge model or the nondisruptive model. There was no survival difference between the discontinuous edge model and the nondisruptive model. Our results demonstrate the importance of wing bands in reducing predation on butterflies and show that markings set in from the wing margin can reduce predation more effectively than marginal bands and discontinuous marginal patterns. This study demonstrates an adaptive benefit of having stripes and bands.     

The role of wing length in the evolution of avian flightlessness

Flightlessness has evolved independently in at least 11 extant avian families. A number of hypotheses have been proposed to explain these transitions in individual families, including release from predation on oceanic islands, energetic costs of flight and use of forelimbs for activities other than flying. Few studies have sought to explore factors common to all families containing flightless species, which may explain the taxonomic distribution of flightlessness. In this study, we found that for all eight avian families which contain both flightless and flighted species, the flighted species have shorter wing lengths relative to body mass than their sister families. This result is not biased by taxon size. Models of avian aerodynamics predict that birds with relatively short wings pay a high energetic cost of flight. We suggest that these increased energetic costs of flying predispose these avian families to evolve flightless species. The various causes for the shortening of wings among flighted species of birds and the possibility of future transitions to flightlessness are discussed.     

Flight morphology along a latitudinal gradient in a butterfly: do geographic clines differ between agricultural and woodland landscapes?

Bergman and converse Bergman rules, amongst others, describe latitudinal variation in size of organisms, including flying ectotherms like butterflies. However, geographic clines in morphological traits of functional significance for flight performance and thermoregulation may also exist, although they have received less attention within a biogeographical context. Variation in flight‐related morphology has often been studied relative to landscape structure. However, the extent to which landscape effects interact with latitudinal clines of phenotypic variation has rarely been tested. Here we address the effect of latitude, landscape type and the interaction effect on body size and flight‐related morphology in the speckled wood butterfly Pararge aegeria. Male adult butterflies were collected from two replicate populations in each agricultural and woodland landscape types along a 700 km cline in six latitudinal zones. Overall size, adult body mass and wing area increased with latitude in line with Bergmann's rule. Forewing length, however, decreased with latitude. As predicted from thermoregulatory needs in ectotherms, the basal wing part was darker to the north. Latitudinal trends for flight‐related morphological traits were opposite to predictions about flight endurance under cooler conditions that were observed in some non‐lepidopteran insects, i.e. wing loading increased and wing aspect ratio decreased with latitude. Opposite trends can, however, be explained by other aspects of butterfly flight performance (i.e. mate‐location behaviour). As predicted from differences in environmental buffering in woodland landscapes along the latitudinal gradient, significant landscape×latitude interaction effects indicated stronger latitudinal clines and stronger phenotypic variation for size and flight morphology in the agricultural landscape compared to the woodland landscape. In agreement with significant interaction effects, morphological differentiation increased with latitude and was higher between population pairs of agricultural landscape than between population pairs of woodland landscape. These results demonstrate that landscape, latitude and their interaction contribute to the understanding of the complex geographic variation in P. aegeria adult phenotypes across Europe.     

Directional and stabilizing selection on wing size and shape in migrant and resident monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus (L.), in Cuba

The majority of migrant monarchs (Danaus plexippus) from the eastern USA and south‐eastern Canada migrate to Mexico; however, some of them migrate to Cuba. Cuban migrants hatch in south‐east Canada and eastern USA, and then engage in a southern trip of 4000 km to this Caribbean island. In Cuba, these migrants encounter resident monarchs, which do not migrate, and instead move between plant patches looking for nectar, mating partners and host plants. These differences in flight behaviour between migrant and resident Cuban monarchs may have resulted in different selective pressures in the wing size and shape. Two modes of selection were tested, directional and stabilizing. In addition, wing condition was compared between these two groups. Monarchs were collected for 4 years in Cuba and classified as resident or migrant using two independent techniques: Thin‐layer chromatography and stable hydrogen and stable carbon isotope measurements. Wing size was measured and wing condition was rated in the butterflies. Fourier analysis and wing angular measurements were used to assess wing shape differences. Migrants have significantly longer wings than residents, thus supporting the action of directional selection on wing size. In addition, directional selection acts on wing shape; that is, migrant females differ significantly from resident females in their wing angles. However, the results do not support the action of stabilizing selection: there was no significant variance between migrant and resident monarchs in their wing size or shape. Also, migrant females and males differed in wing condition as a result of differences in flight behaviour. In conclusion, eastern North American monarchs offer a good opportunity to study the selective pressures of migration on wing morphology and how different migratory routes and behaviours are linked to wing morphology and condition. © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2007, 92 , 605–616.     

Large‐sized insects show stronger seasonality than small‐sized ones: a case study of fruit‐feeding butterflies

Animal species have a restricted period during the year when conditions for development are optimal, and this is known as the temporal window. Duration of the temporal window can vary among species, although the causes of variation are still poorly understood. In the present study, examining butterflies, we assume that the temporal window duration is correlated with the seasonal period of flight (termed seasonality). To understand how species characteristics are correlated with this, we examine whether there is a relationship between body size and length of flight period of fruit‐feeding butterflies in forest fragments, and whether these two parameters have a phylogenetic signal. Using wing size as a measure of body size and the period of adult flight as a measure of seasonality, we found significant positive correlations between body size and seasonality among subfamilies but not within subfamilies. We also found a clear phylogenetic signal in size but not in seasonality. The results obtained suggest the existence of a trade‐off between insect size and seasonality, with size limiting flight period length. The relationship between body size and seasonality and the synchrony with their resources may be one factor explaining the vulnerability of large insects to forest fragmentation. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 104 , 820–827.     

Prey from the eyes of predators: Color discriminability of aposematic and mimetic butterflies from an avian visual perspective

Predation exerts strong selection on mimetic butterfly wing color patterns, which also serve other functions such as sexual selection. Therefore, specific selection pressures may affect the sexes and signal components differentially. We tested three predictions about the evolution of mimetic resemblance by comparing wing coloration of aposematic butterflies and their Batesian mimics: (a) females gain greater mimetic advantage than males and therefore are better mimics, (b) due to intersexual genetic correlations, sexually monomorphic mimics are better mimics than female‐limited mimics, and (c) mimetic resemblance is better on the dorsal wing surface that is visible to predators in flight. Using a physiological model of avian color vision, we quantified mimetic resemblance from predators’ perspective, which showed that female butterflies were better mimics than males. Mimetic resemblance in female‐limited mimics was comparable to that in sexually monomorphic mimics, suggesting that intersexual genetic correlations did not constrain adaptive response to selection for female‐limited mimicry. Mimetic resemblance on the ventral wing surface was better than that on the dorsal wing surface, implying stronger natural and sexual selection on ventral and dorsal surfaces, respectively. These results suggest that mimetic resemblance in butterfly mimicry rings has evolved under various selective pressures acting in a sex‐ and wing surface‐specific manner.     

Sexual and seasonal differences in the frequency of beak marks on the wings of two Lethe butterflies

To assess bird predation pressure on butterflies, I investigated beak marks on the wings of two Lethe butterflies for 3 years in secondary temperate forests. If bird predation had significant effects on average longevity of butterflies, and if the number of specimens preyed upon was proportionate to the number of beak-marked specimens, the beak mark frequency would be negatively correlated with average longevity of a butterfly. Bird predation pressure is generally thought to influence average longevity of butterflies. Therefore, if there is a negative correlation between beak mark frequency and average longevity, bird predation pressure would be reflected in beak mark frequency. Beak mark frequency was negatively correlated with longevity in Lethe diana (Butler), the more abundant of the two species; thus, the beak mark frequency was considered to be a suitable index of bird predation pressure on the butterflies investigated in this study. In both Lethe species, beak mark frequency was higher in females than in males. Because female butterflies have a relatively smaller thorax and flight muscles and a larger abdomen that contains eggs, they are presumably weaker or less agile fliers than males, and are probably attacked more easily by birds. In autumn, butterflies were heavily attacked by birds irrespective of sex and species. Because the numbers of lepidopteran larvae, which are the preferred prey of many birds, decreased in autumn, birds were thought to shift their diets to alternative prey such as adult butterflies.     

Distribution and habitats of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phengaris</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Maculinea</Emphasis>) butterflies and population ecology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phengaris</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">teleius</Emphasis> in China

Many species of the butterfly genus Phengaris are regarded as endangered in many parts of their distribution. Several species are also widely distributed across northern China. Due to land use change and overgrazing, their habitats are declining and many patches have been lost. This paper investigates the distribution and habitats of the Chinese Phengaris species (of the subgenus Maculinea). Shrub-grassland near forests seem the most frequent habitat for Phengaris, while flat open grasslands are mostly over-grazed and thus survival for Phengaris butterflies there seems difficult. Throughout Europe, P. teleius is an endangered species, while there is still no information on its status in China. To improve the knowledge on the population ecology of P. teleius, its population structure, adult behaviour and movement were studied through mark–release–recapture methods in the Qinling Mountains of Taibai County. Eight grassland patches which were potentially suitable were found in the area in 2013. In total, 480 individuals (274 females) were marked, resulting in an overall recapture rate of 16 %. The average daily population size was 44 butterflies (±23 SD) during the adult flight period. Sixty-seven percent of the females and 38 % of the males moved less than 50 m, and 17 % of recaptured females and 38 % of males moved more than 200 m. The mean movement distance was 107 ± 177 m for males and 182 ± 122 m for females. The majority of the recaptures (86 %) were made within the patches, only a few individuals (14 %) moved between patches. Due to human disturbance and destruction, all of the eight potentially suitable patches are becoming smaller and increasingly isolated, thus these populations of P. teleius may face an increasing risk of extinction, which may well be a tip of the iceberg of habitat loss and fragmentation of P. teleius in Taibai County and possibly beyond. Hence we hope our initial study of P. teleius could have positive impacts on the conservation of Phengaris butterflies in China.