Behaviour-Related Scalar Habitat Use by Cape Buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer)

Studies of habitat use by animals must consider behavioural resource requirements at different scales, which could influence the functional value of different sites. Using Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, we tested the hypotheses that behaviour affected use between and within habitats, hereafter referred to as macro- and microhabitats, respectively. We fitted GPS-enabled collars to fifteen buffalo and used the distances and turning angles between consecutive fixes to cluster the resulting data into resting, grazing, walking and relocating behaviours. Distance to water and six vegetation characteristic variables were recorded in sites used for each behaviour, except for relocating, which occurred too infrequently. We used multilevel binomial and multinomial logistic regressions to identify variables that characterised seasonally-preferred macrohabitats and microhabitats used for different behaviours. Our results showed that macrohabitat use was linked to behaviour, although this was least apparent during the rainy season, when resources were most abundant. Behaviour-related microhabitat use was less significant, but variation in forage characteristics could predict some behaviour within all macrohabitats. The variables predicting behaviour were not consistent, but resting and grazing sites were more readily identifiable than walking sites. These results highlight the significance of resting, as well as foraging, site availability in buffalo spatial processes. Our results emphasise the importance of considering several behaviours and scales in studies of habitat use to understand the links between environmental resources and animal behavioural and spatial ecology.     

Basic haematological values in the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) and in the red buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus)

Basic haematological values in 13 African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer caffer), 11 cows and 2 bulls, and in 2 red buffaloes (Syncerus caffer nanus), 1 bull and 1 cow, are reported. In the African buffalo, the erythrocyte count--mean 9.76 X 10(12) 1(-1)--ranged from 6.72 to 12.42 X 10(12) 1(-1), the haematocrit values--mean 0.391--varied from 0.32 to 0.47 and the haemoglobin content--mean 148.17--was in the range from 122.1 to 172.5 g 1(-1). For the red buffalo only individual values are given. In the African buffaloes, the leukocyte counts--mean 7.39 X 10(9) 1(-1)--ranging from 5.1 to 12.4 X 10(9) 1(-1) were slightly increased compared with man. For the red buffalo only individual values are reported. These values are compared with data abstracted from the literature for related buffalo species. The age-dependent decrease of erythrocyte counts and the age-dependent rise of the eosinophile proportion in the differential count are discussed.     

Age determination of the African buffalo, Syncerus caffer Sparrman

Age criteria for the African buffalo are described. These are based on the tooth eruption sequence and on wear of the first molar. Assignment of absolute ages to the tooth eruption and wear classes has been made by reference to known-age animals and to numbers of cementum lines in tooth sections. For ageing animals to the nearest year, the normal degree of accuracy of the methods is assumed to be about ± 1/2year (1–5 years of age); about ± 1 year (5–15 years of age); and about ±2 years (15-20years of age). A field method of age determination is presented based on horn characteristics and relative body size.     

Thelazia rhodesii in the African buffalo, Syncerus caffer, in Zambia

We report 2 cases of Thelazia rhodesii infection in the African buffaloes, Syncerus caffer, in Zambia. African buffalo calves were captured from the livestock and wildlife interface area of the Kafue basin in the dry season of August 2005 for the purpose to translocate to game ranches. At capture, calves (n=48) were examined for the presence of eye infections by gently manipulating the orbital membranes to check for eye-worms in the conjunctival sacs and corneal surfaces. Two (4.3%) were infected and the mean infection burden per infected eye was 5.3 worms (n=3). The mean length of the worms was 16.4 mm (95% CI; 14.7-18.2 mm) and the diameter 0.41 mm (95% CI; 0.38-0.45 mm). The surface cuticle was made of transverse striations which gave the worms a characteristic serrated appearance. Although the calves showed signs of kerato-conjunctivitis, the major pathological change observed was corneal opacity. The calves were kept in quarantine and were examined thrice at 30 days interval. At each interval, they were treated with 200 μg/kg ivermectin, and then translocated to game ranches. Given that the disease has been reported in cattle and Kafue lechwe (Kobus lechwe kafuensis) in the area, there is a need for a comprehensive study which aims at determining the disease dynamics and transmission patterns of thelaziasis between wildlife and livestock in the Kafue basin.     

Novel SNP Discovery in African Buffalo,Syncerus caffer,Using High-Throughput Sequencing

The African buffalo, Syncerus caffer, is one of the most abundant and ecologically important species of megafauna in the savannah ecosystem. It is an important prey species, as well as a host for a vast array of nematodes, pathogens and infectious diseases, such as bovine tuberculosis and corridor disease. Large-scale SNP discovery in this species would greatly facilitate further research into the area of host genetics and disease susceptibility, as well as provide a wealth of sequence information for other conservation and genomics studies. We sequenced pools of Cape buffalo DNA from a total of 9 animals, on an ABI SOLiD4 sequencer. The resulting short reads were mapped to the UMD3.1 Bos taurus genome assembly using both BWA and Bowtie software packages. A mean depth of 2.7× coverage over the mapped regions was obtained. Btau4 gene annotation was added to all SNPs identified within gene regions. Bowtie and BWA identified a maximum of 2,222,665 and 276,847 SNPs within the buffalo respectively, depending on analysis method. A panel of 173 SNPs was validated by fluorescent genotyping in 87 individuals. 27 SNPs failed to amplify, and of the remaining 146 SNPs, 43–54% of the Bowtie SNPs and 57–58% of the BWA SNPs were confirmed as polymorphic. dN/dS ratios found no evidence of positive selection, and although there were genes that appeared to be under negative selection, these were more likely to be slowly evolving house-keeping genes.     

Hipposideros caffer (Chiroptera: Hipposideridae) in Zimbabwe: morphology and echolocation calls

The results of this study of morphological variation and variation in echolocation calls indicate that only specimens with narrow lateral nasal inflations (= Hipposideros caffer ) have been reported from Zimbabwe to date. In both Zambia and Mocambique, single localities yielded both specimens with narrow or wide lateral nasal inflations (nominally, H. caffer and H. ruber , respectively). There are significant differences in echolocation calls between one site in Zimbabwe and another near the Zimbabwe South Africa border that are not paralleled by significant morphological differences.     

Palatability factors and nutritive values of the food of buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) in Uganda

The food preferences of tame buffaloes grazing different vegetation types were recorded. The effects of fire and rainfall were investigated. By initiating a new growth cycle, fire altered the food habits of large herbivores and also the distribution of small mammals. Seasonal variations in the effect of rainfall on plant growth explains why preferences did not change in proportion to precipitation. The more important grasses were collected and their parts analysed physically and chemically. Their stem to leaf ratio is considered to have influenced the species eaten by coarse grazers such as buffalo. A broad correlation was obtained between buffalo preferences and the percentage green leaf of Hyparrhenia filipendula and Themeda triandra. This correlation was improved when preferences were compared with the number of grams green leaf carbohydrate per 100 g dry grass. There was a negative response to the silica present in dead leaves, but stem fibre appeared to have little effect on preferences. A grazing animal experiences a combination of attractants and repellants, i.e. green leaf carbohydrate and protein less stem fibre and dead leaf silica. Other palatability factors were noted, in particular tannins and oils in grasses of the tribe Andropogoneae. These may act as repellants, possibly only when the grazing animal has alternative vegetation from which to choose. The mineral content of grasses appeared to be adequate and calcium and phosphorus were present in about the required proportions. The observations support the belief that selective grazing enables a herbivore to consume a diet of significantly higher nutritive value than that of the average sward. Browsing and new growth after fire help compensate for the low nutritive value of pasture during the dry season. The nutritive value of the diet is considered to be the proximal factor in the seasonal cycle of reproduction of the buffalo and probably the ultimate factor in the reproduction of certain other ungulates and rodents.     

Habitat preferences of the secretive forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) in Central Africa

The forest buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus is one of the three subspecies of African buffalo inhabiting the rainforests of Western and Central Africa. Because of its secretive behaviour and main habitat (dense rainforests), there is little quantitative information on the habitat preferences of this buffalo. We present here the first data on the frequencies of this species along a habitat gradient ranging from clearings and rivers to forests, as well as the characteristics of the buffalo's resting places. We recorded information from a buffalo herd during the period January 2002–January 2004 in the Bai-Hokou area (Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central African Republic). Resting places were firstly compared with available habitat (i.e. resting vs. random sites) and, successively, comparisons were made between diurnal versus nocturnal and wet versus dry season resting places. Forest buffalos were found to be highly dependent on clearings, as well as on the more open forest stands, characterized by large trees and open canopy. Such preferences could be due to the tendency of the buffalos to rest all together; open patches are likely to facilitate social interactions between the members of the herd.     

Applicability of bovine microsatellite markers for population genetic studies on African buffalo (Syncerus caffer)

The applicability of bovine autosomal microsatellite markers for population genetic studies on African buffalo was investigated. A total of 168 microsatellite markers were tested for PCR amplification on a test panel of seven African buffalo. Amplification was observed for 139 markers (83%), and 101 markers were studied further with 91 (90%) being polymorphic. The mean number of alleles per marker was 5.0 (SE = 0.2) and the mean heterozygosity per marker was 0.61 (SE = 0.03). Considering the overall high level of polymorphism, it was concluded that most bovine microsatellite markers are applicable in African buffalo.     

Immobilization of African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer coffer) in large numbers for veterinary research

Four hundred and eleven African buffaloes were immobilized with etorphine hydrochloride (M99, Reckitts) and sampled under difficult conditions in North Western Botswana. The buffaloes were darted from a helicopter in 36 days. 584 darts were fired giving a success rate of 70-5%. Various age groups in three separate buffalo populations were included. The technique and difficulties encountered when working from a helicopter are described. Mechanical failure of the darting equipment was negligible. A breakdown of the costs involved is given and a comparison made with similar work carried out solely from land vehicles.     

Ultrastructure of buffalo,Syncerus caffer,platelets: Comparison with bovine and human platelets

Platelets are found in the blood of all mammals and serve the same basic hemostatic functions in all. Species differences in the morphology and activities of platelets in human and domesticated animals have been observed, but there is little published information regarding the blood pictures of wild animals. In this study, the ultrastructure of buffalo platelets was compared with that of bovine and human platelets. Buffalo platelets were found to be smaller than human platelets and intracellularly had larger α-granules, possessed distinctive dense granules and a more distinct microtubuli system, but they lacked the open canalicular system observed in the human type. This morphology is similar to that of cattle platelets. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) populations throughout Africa

Genetic diversity in nine African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) populations throughout Africa was analysed with 14 microsatellites to study the effects of rinderpest epidemics and habitat fragmentation during the 20th century. A gradient of declining expected heterozygosity was observed among populations in Save Valley Conservancy (Zimbabwe), and northern and southern Kruger National Park (South Africa). This was explained by a high mortality in northern Kruger National Park during the rinderpest pandemic at the end of the 19th century followed by recolonization from neighbouring populations, resulting in intermediate heterozygosity levels in northern Kruger National Park. In other populations expected heterozygosity was very high, indicating that rinderpest and recent habitat fragmentation had a limited effect on genetic diversity. From expected heterozygosity, estimates of long-term effective population size were derived. Migration rates among populations in eastern and southern Africa were very high, as shown by a weak isolation by distance and significant correlation in allele frequencies between populations. However, there were indications that dry habitats could limit migration. Genetic distances within buffalo in central Africa were relatively large, supporting their status as distinct subspecies. Finally, it was observed that the higher polymorphic microsatellites were less sensitive at detecting isolation by distance and differences in Ne, which may be a result of the high mutation pressure at these loci.