Male mating preferences pre-date the origin of a female trait polymorphism in an incipient species complex of Lake Victoria cichlids

Disruptive sexual selection on colour patterns has been suggested as a major cause of diversification in the cichlid species flock of Lake Victoria. In Neochromis omnicaeruleus, a colour and sex determination polymorphism is associated with a polymorphism in male and female mating preferences. Theoretical work on this incipient species complex found conditions for rapid sympatric speciation by selection on sex determination and sexual selection on male and female colour patterns, under restrictive assumptions. Here we test the biological plausibility of a key assumption of such models, namely, the existence of a male preference against a novel female colour morph before its appearance in the population. We show that most males in a population that lacks the colour polymorphism exhibit a strong mating preference against the novel female colour morph and that reinforcement is not a likely explanation for the origin of such male preferences. Our results show that a specific condition required for the combined action of selection on sex determination and sexual selection to drive sympatric speciation is biologically justified. Finally, we suggest that Lake Victoria cichlids might share an ancestral female recognition scheme, predisposing colour monomorphic populations/species to similar evolutionary pathways leading to divergence of colour morphs in sympatry.     

Reproducibility of electronic tooth colour measurements

Clinical methods of investigation, such as tooth colour determination, should be simple, quick and reproducible. The determination of tooth colours usually relies upon manual comparison of a patient's tooth colour with a colour ring. After some days, however, measurement results frequently lack unequivocal reproducibility. This study aimed to examine an electronic method for reliable colour measurement. The colours of the teeth 14 to 24 were determined by three different examiners in 10 subjects using the colour measuring device Shade Inspector. In total, 12 measurements per tooth were taken. Two measurement time points were scheduled to be taken, namely at study onset (T(1)) and after 6 months (T(2)). At either time point, two measurement series per subject were taken by the different examiners at 2-week intervals. The inter-examiner and intra-examiner agreement of the measurement results was assessed. The concordance for lightness and colour intensity (saturation) was represented by the intra-class correlation coefficient. The categorical variable colour shade (hue) was assessed using the kappa statistic. The study results show that tooth colour can be measured independently of the examiner. Good agreement was found between the examiners.     

Pupal colour dimorphism in swallowtail butterflies: timing of the sensitive period and environmental control

ABSTRACT. Two North American swallowtail butterflies with pupal colour dimorphism, Eurytides marcellus (Cramer) and Papilio troilus L., use chiefly the colour of the pupation substrate to determine pupal colour, and are affected hardly ( P.troilus ) or not at all ( E.marcellus ) by substrate texture. The use of colour cues in these species is in contrast to the greater importance of texture in two other sympatric swallowtails (Hazel & West, 1979). E.marcellus larvae evacuate the gut and start prepupal wandering around mid-day. If they have not reached the sensitive period for pupal colour determination by nightfall they will delay the sensitive period until the next day. Among other North American swallowtails with pupal colour dimorphism there is no tendency for those species that use textural cues for pupal colour determination to evacuate the gut later in the day than those using pupation site colour.     

A study of the o-toluidine method for glycogen measurement (author's transl)]

The application of the o-toluidine procedure for glucose estimation was studied in the determination of glycogen. Decrease in final colour formation, caused by the acid used on hydrolising glycogen, was the major problem. 90 minutes incubation periods with 1N sulphuric acid at 100 degrees C, produced best results. Some other steps of this method and their application to glycogen measurement are also discussed. The proposed procedure leads to a stable colour formation, proportional to glycogen concentration, and allows determination of polysaccharide in small biological samples.     

木聚糖酶活力测定条件研究

用DNS法测木聚糖酶活力,分析测定条件对测定结果的影响。结果表明,在不同的条件下测定酶活力会得到不同的木聚糖酶活力测定值。其中,酶液用量、酶解反应的时间对测定结果的影响较大,酶液稀释度、DNS显色时间、DNS的用量,对测定结果也有一定的髟响。测定木聚糖酶活力的适宜条件为：酶液量/1％木聚糖液量1/9(V／V);酶解反应时间：10min;DNS用量2—2．5ml;DNS显色时间2—5min。     

苯丙氨酸的脱氨酶法测定

方法的原理是：由某些微生物所产生的苯丙氨酸脱氨酶能使苯丙氨酸分子氧化脱氨,生成相应的苯丙酮酸。在合适的反应体系中,苯丙酮酸与三氯化铁反应生成的化合物呈蓝绿色,这种颜色的深浅与苯丙氨酸含量成正比,制备的标准曲线有良好的线性。因而可借此法对测试样品中的苯丙氨酸含量     

Foodplant effects on colour morphs of Eumorpha fasciata caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Caterpillars of the hawkmoth Eumorpha fasciata are highly polymorphic for colour, with green, pink, and pink-and-yellow forms in the second through fourth instars, and green and multicoloured forms in the fifth instar. Four years of field censuses on four foodplant species determined that all morphs were found on all plant species; morph frequencies were homogeneous on each plant species over time; and morph frequencies differed consistently among plant species. When larvae were reared from eggs on three of the hostplant species in the laboratory, differences in morph frequencies paralleled the census results. Thus foodplant quality is one factor affecting larval colour in E. fasciata. A literature survey reveals that foodplant effects on larval colouration may be widespread in the family Sphingidae, but most reports are anecdotal rather than experimental. The implications of this mechanism of colour determination are discussed.     

Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry

Several recent papers have tried to address the genetic determination of eye colour via microsatellite linkage, testing of pigmentation candidate gene polymorphisms and the genome wide analysis of SNP markers that are informative for ancestry. These studies show that the OCA2 gene on chromosome 15 is the major determinant of brown and/or blue eye colour but also indicate that other loci will be involved in the broad range of hues seen in this trait in Europeans.     

Objective non-contact method of study of the color of the human skin integument by use of a photoelectric colorimeter]

The authors describe a method of determination of the colour of the skin in man based on the use of contactless photoelectric colorimeter made especially for this purpose. The mean normal values of the indices of the skin colour of the anterior and the posterior surface of the arm in 45 men and 35 women of the Europeoid race under normal conditions are presented.     

Nomenclature in genetics of sheep color

The International Committee (COGNOSAG) was founded in 1984 with the view of development of nomenclature and analysis of genetic determination of wool and hair colour, visible traits and polymorphisms. At the Workshop 3 of COGNOSAG (July 1988) the completed variant of colour genes' and alleles' list was worked out. The type of phenotypic expression of alleles of genes A, B, C, E, Ph, Rn, S, Sp, SuB and SuS is shown.     

Sexual selection and genetic colour polymorphisms in animals

Genetic colour polymorphisms are widespread across animals and often subjected to complex selection regimes. Traditionally, colour morphs were used as simple visual markers to measure allele frequency changes in nature, selection, population divergence and speciation. With advances in sequencing technology and analysis methods, several model systems are emerging where the molecular targets of selection are being described. Here, we discuss recent studies on the genetics of sexually selected colour polymorphisms, aiming at (i) reviewing the evidence of sexual selection on colour polymorphisms, (ii) highlighting the genetic architecture, molecular and developmental basis underlying phenotypic colour diversification and (iii) discuss how the maintenance of such polymorphisms might be facilitated or constrained by these. Studies of the genetic architecture of colour polymorphism point towards the importance of tight clustering of colour loci with other trait loci, such as in the case of inversions and supergene structures. Other interesting findings include linkage between colour loci and mate preferences or sex determination, and the role of introgression and regulatory variation in fuelling polymorphisms. We highlight that more studies are needed that explicitly integrate fitness consequences of sexual selection on colour with the underlying molecular targets of colour to gain insights into the evolutionary consequences of sexual selection on polymorphism maintenance.     

Comparative psychophysics of bumblebee and honeybee colour discrimination and object detection

Bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) discrimination of targets with broadband reflectance spectra was tested using simultaneous viewing conditions, enabling an accurate determination of the perceptual limit of colour discrimination excluding confounds from memory coding (experiment 1). The level of colour discrimination in bumblebees, and honeybees (Apis mellifera) (based upon previous observations), exceeds predictions of models considering receptor noise in the honeybee. Bumblebee and honeybee photoreceptors are similar in spectral shape and spacing, but bumblebees exhibit significantly poorer colour discrimination in behavioural tests, suggesting possible differences in spatial or temporal signal processing. Detection of stimuli in a Y-maze was evaluated for bumblebees (experiment 2) and honeybees (experiment 3). Honeybees detected stimuli containing both green-receptor-contrast and colour contrast at a visual angle of approximately 5 degrees , whilst stimuli that contained only colour contrast were only detected at a visual angle of 15 degrees . Bumblebees were able to detect these stimuli at a visual angle of 2.3 degrees and 2.7 degrees , respectively. A comparison of the experiments suggests a tradeoff between colour discrimination and colour detection in these two species, limited by the need to pool colour signals to overcome receptor noise. We discuss the colour processing differences and possible adaptations to specific ecological habitats.     

Six spectral sensitivity classes in crab visual interneurons

Summary Electrophysiological determination of the spectral sensitivity of units from the retina, optic lobes and brain of the crabParagrapsus gaimardii revealed six major colour types. Single peaks occurred in the UV, blue-green, green and yellow, and further units showed either a broad-band sensitivity or double peaks in the violet and yellow.Many of the curves had broad shoulders and offset peaks, markedly different in shape to curves suggested by Dartnall for rhodopsins with the same peak values, but similar to those previously recorded for other crabs. This finding, allied with limited evidence that a number of the colour types changed one from the other depending on illumination level, suggests that at least some of the colour types may result from a filtering of the light reaching a single retinal type.The UV sensitivity, recorded from brain interneurons, is the highest so far found in crabs.The range of colour types recorded provides a good potential substrate for colour vision. It is therefore of interest that a survey of a total of 105 units provided no evidence for colour opponency.Queen Elizabeth II Fellow in Marine Science, 1978–1979     

Longevity and survival of the black stork Ciconia nigra based on ring recoveries

To understand population dynamics, the determination of survival rates is very important. For the black stork Ciconia nigra no survival rate determination has been published to date. This might be due to the fact that ringing activity and recovery numbers in general are still relatively low for the species. The international black stork colour ringing programme is taking place with the participation of 25 countries including Hungary. Altogether more than 7,000 black storks have been colour ringed worldwide, of which 1,069 individuals were marked in Hungary. This article’s objective is the determination of the survival rates for the black stork, as well as to estimate the longevity of the species based on live encounters of ringed individuals. The conclusions are that longevity can be estimated based on the data, and is in agreement with previous knowledge; and that the survival rate of the species, with our present knowledge, shows a significant difference between first year (0.1696, 0.1297–0.219) and older birds (0.838, 0.773–0.887).     

A rapid method for obtaining readily soluble phosphates and phosphate fixation in soils

Summary Following well known methods for the preparation of reagents for the determination of phosphates by the coeruleo-molybdate reaction, the preparation of a new series of colour standards is detailed.The procedure for estimating phosphate by a rapid technique is given and discussed, important points being ratio of extracting solution to soil, time of reaction and temperature of reaction. The development of the blue colour is otherwise carried out in the recognised manner.After the extraction of phosphates from the soil, the amount fixed from a phosphate solution in the presence of the same extracting solution by a further sample of the soil of the same weight is next determined, using the same technique. From these two results, the readily soluble phosphate in the soil and the fixation rate are arrived at.Tentative ranges and symbols are given for readily soluble phosphate in lbs per acre, and also for the fixation rate in lbs per acre.Publication authorised by the Director.     

Determination of sulphide in water-logged soils

Summary A digestion-absorption train is described for the determination of sulphide in water-logged soils. The soil sample is treated with hydrochloric acid and the hydrogen sulphide evolved is swept by means of carbon dioxide into an absorption tube containing zinc acetate-sodium acetate solution. The precipitated sulphide is then determined absorptiometrically after development of the methylene blue colour.     

棉籽中游离棉酚的含量测定

用紫外分光光度法测定棉籽中游离棉酚的含量。脱除棉酚的棉籽乙醚提取物经石油醚和 75 %乙醇分离和纯化后 ,用 0 .5 %对氨基苯磺酸显色来检测棉籽中游离棉酚的含量 ,结果表明 ,该方法具有简便、重现性好、回收率高达 97%以上等优点 ,可作为棉籽中游离棉酚质量控制方法。     

Few substitutions affect the bioluminescence spectra of Phrixotrix (Coleoptera: Phengodidae) luciferases: a site-directed mutagenesis survey.

Phrixotrix (railroad worm) luciferases produce bioluminescence in the green and red regions of the spectrum, depending on the location of the lanterns, and are the only luciferases naturally producing red bioluminescence. Comparison of the luciferase sequences showed a set of substitutions that could be involved in bioluminescence colour determination: (a) unique substitutions in the red luciferase replacing otherwise invariant residues; (b) conserved basic residues in the green-yellow emitting luciferases; and (c) an additional R353 residue in red-emitting luciferase (Viviani et al., 1999). To investigate whether these sites have a functional role in bioluminescence colour determination, we performed a site-directed mutagenesis. Natural substitutions in the region 220-344 and residues in the putative luciferin-binding site were also investigated. With the exception of the previously identified substitution of R215 and T226 (Viviani et al., 2002), which display dramatic red-shift effects on the spectrum of green-yellow-emitting luciferases, only a few substitutions had a moderate effect on the spectrum of the green-emitting luciferase. In contrast, no single substitution affected the spectrum of the red-emitting luciferase. The results suggest that the identity of the active site residues is not so critical for determining red bioluminescence in PxRE luciferase. Rather, the conformation assumed during the emitting step could be critical to set up proper interactions with excited oxyluciferin.     

Possible use of a colorimetric method for determining silicon levels in animal tissues

The colorimetric method was studied for the possibility to be used for the quantitative determination of silicon in the phosphorus-rich tissues. The formation of the blue silicomolybdic complex was used to colour the test solutions. It is shown that a considerable interaction between Si and P resulting in distortion of the analysis occurs in solutions containing more than 10 micrograms/ml of P. The concentration of P less than 10 micrograms/ml does not prevent from silicon determination, that evidences for the expedience of maximum dilution of biological fluids before their examination by the colorimetric method.     

Image correction method for the colour contrast effect using inverse processes of the brain

In the colour contrast effect, the impression of a colour changes according to the situation; cases occur in which the colour appearance is misunderstood. We propose an image signal processing method for preventing such misperception of colour. Many conventional image improving methods emphasize the contrast of images as same as the brain does. However, by their processes, the colour contrast effect is not canceled; we misunderstand the colour. The objective of this study is to perceive original colour. Therefore, we propose an image correction method using inverse processes of the brain in order to cancel the processes of the brain, the colour contrast effect. We verified whether the proposed method corrected the colour contrast effect by conducting a psychological experiment. The results show that the method succeeds in canceling the colour contrast effect.