Towards more effective integration of tropical forest restoration and conservation

Conservation and restoration interventions can be mutually reinforcing and are converging through an increased focus on social dimensions. This paper examines how to more effectively integrate the complementary goals of conservation and restoration of tropical forests. Forest conservation and restoration interventions are integral components of a broad approach to forest ecosystem and landscape management that aims to maintain and restore key ecological processes and enhance human well‐being, while minimizing biodiversity loss. The forest transition model provides a useful framework for understanding the relative importance of forest conservation and restoration interventions in different regions. Harmonizing conservation and restoration presents serious challenges for forest policy in tropical countries, particularly regarding the use and management of secondary forests, fallow vegetation, and forests degraded by logging and fire. Research to implement restoration more effectively in tropical regions can be stimulated by transforming questions that initially focused on conservation issues. Examination of papers published in Biotropica from 2000–2018 shows that most studies relevant to tropical forest conservation do not address forest restoration issues. Forest restoration studies, on the other hand, show a consistent association with conservation issues. There is much scope for further integration of conservation and restoration in research, practice, and policy. Securing a sustainable future for tropical forests requires developing and applying integrated approaches to landscape management that effectively combine knowledge and tools from multiple disciplines with practical experience and engagement of local stakeholders. Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.     

Combining local ecological knowledge and quantitative forest surveys to select indicator species for forest condition monitoring in central Viet Nam

In tropical central Viet Nam, as part of a forest allocation program, forest condition should be monitored by local stakeholders. If local ecological knowledge can be integrated into the development of indicator species, then improvements in both the rigor of the indicator list and the involvement of local people in the monitoring process may occur. We used a dual methodology to derive two forest condition indicator species lists using trees, based on local ecological knowledge and quantitative forest surveys. Combining these lists allowed us to produce a final list of thirteen ‘probable’ and eight ‘possible’ indicator tree species for forest condition monitoring. Despite some possible limitations to the methodology, we encourage the use of multiple data sets when working with rural communities that are involved in the monitoring process. Local people can propose timely and appropriate measures of forest conservation and improvement, and can definitely integrate indicator species into monitoring community forests.     

Conservation status of tropical dry forest remnants in Nicaragua: Do ecological indicators and social perception tally?

Intensive deforestation is reducing dry tropical forest areas worldwide and increasing its fragmentation. Forest remnants can be the basis for the future recovery of this forest type if appropriate management practices are applied. This requires a better knowledge of their conservation status and the assessment of their perceived value by land users. In this study we compare the structure, species richness and diversity of different types of tropical dry forest remnants in Nicaragua and we assess their conservation status based on a new index: Social simplified Importance Value Index (SsIVI). This index summarizes both ecological indicators and the perception by local stakeholders of the conservation status of the tree species present. Results show that gallery and hillslope forest remnants have higher species richness and diversity than isolated vestigial patches. In all remnants, species richness and diversity is higher in the tree layer than in the regeneration layer. No differences are observed in valorisation among different types of remnants either for the tree layer or for the regeneration layer. In the hillslope forests, where several degrees of disturbance are present, the valorisation decreases with increasing degradation. Results of species composition and forest structure indicate a strong degradation of dry tropical forest remnants in Nicaragua. However, the similar social valorisation of the three types of remnants suggests that they face similar threats but also similar opportunities to be preserved. A decrease in valorisation with increasing degradation warns about the potential loss of the most degraded areas, unless forest restoration is applied.     

Linking Land‐Use Scenarios,Remote Sensing and Monitoring to Project Impact of Management Decisions

Large‐scale modifications of natural ecosystems lead to mosaics of natural, semi‐natural and intensively used habitats. To improve communication in conservation planning, managers and other stakeholders need spatially explicit projections at the landscape scale of future biodiversity under different land‐use scenarios. For that purpose, we visualized the potential effect of five forest management scenarios on the avifauna of Kakamega Forest, western Kenya using different measures of bird diversity and GIS data. Future projections of bird diversity combined: (1) remotely sensed data on the spatial distribution of different forest management types; (2) field‐based data on the biodiversity of birds in the different management types; and (3) forest management scenarios that took into account possible views of various stakeholder groups. Management scenarios based on the species richness of forest specialists were very informative, because they reflected differences in the proportions of near‐natural forest types among the five scenarios. Projections based on community composition were even more meaningful, as they mirrored not only the proportions of near‐natural forest types, but also their perimeter to area ratios. This highlights that it is important to differentiate effects of the total area of available habitat and the degree of habitat fragmentation, both for species richness and community composition. Furthermore, our study shows that an approach that combines land‐use scenarios, remote sensing and field data on biodiversity can be used to visualize future biodiversity. As such, visualizations of alternative scenarios are valuable for successful communication about conservation planning considering different groups of stakeholders in species‐rich tropical forests.     

Sharing Ecological Knowledge: Opportunities and Barriers to Uptake

Conserving tropical ecosystems is one of the foremost challenges of the 21st century. Lately, conservation efforts have focused on advancing conservation through dialogue and interaction with and among diverse stakeholders. Knowledge sharing, and specifically the transfer of scientific knowledge, can raise ecological awareness among stakeholders and is necessary to facilitate dialogue, yet the communication of tropical scientific research to local stakeholders is rarely effectively implemented. Such a communication gap potentially undermines the conservation and management of natural resources. The papers in this special section highlight the difficulties and benefits of sharing ecological knowledge, as well as the underlying reasons for why a research–implementation gap has arisen.     

The potential ecological costs and cobenefits of REDD: a critical review and case study from the Amazon region

The United Nations climate treaty may soon include a mechanism for compensating tropical nations that succeed in reducing carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, source of nearly one fifth of global carbon emissions. We review the potential for this mechanism [reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD)] to provoke ecological damages and promote ecological cobenefits. Nations could potentially participate in REDD by slowing clear‐cutting of mature tropical forest, slowing or decreasing the impact of selective logging, promoting forest regeneration and restoration, and expanding tree plantations. REDD could also foster efforts to reduce the incidence of forest fire. Potential ecological costs include the accelerated loss (through displaced agricultural expansion) of low‐biomass, high‐conservation‐value ecosystems, and substitution of low‐biomass vegetation by monoculture tree plantations. These costs could be avoided through measures that protect low‐biomass native ecosystems. Substantial ecological cobenefits should be conferred under most circumstances, and include the maintenance or restoration of (1) watershed functions, (2) local and regional climate regimes, (3) soils and biogeochemical processes, (4) water quality and aquatic habitat, and (5) terrestrial habitat. Some tools already being developed to monitor, report and verify (MRV) carbon emissions performance can also be used to measure other elements of ecosystem function, making development of MRV systems for ecological cobenefits a concrete possibility. Analysis of possible REDD program interventions in a large‐scale Amazon landscape indicates that even modest flows of forest carbon funding can provide substantial cobenefits for aquatic ecosystems, but that the functional integrity of the landscape's myriad small watersheds would be best protected under a more even spatial distribution of forests. Because of its focus on an ecosystem service with global benefits, REDD could access a large pool of global stakeholders willing to pay to maintain carbon in forests, thereby providing a potential cascade of ecosystem services to local stakeholders who would otherwise be unable to afford them.     

Multiple successional pathways in human‐modified tropical landscapes: new insights from forest succession,forest fragmentation and landscape ecology research

Old‐growth tropical forests are being extensively deforested and fragmented worldwide. Yet forest recovery through succession has led to an expansion of secondary forests in human‐modified tropical landscapes (HMTLs). Secondary forests thus emerge as a potential repository for tropical biodiversity, and also as a source of essential ecosystem functions and services in HMTLs. Such critical roles are controversial, however, as they depend on successional, landscape and socio‐economic dynamics, which can vary widely within and across landscapes and regions. Understanding the main drivers of successional pathways of disturbed tropical forests is critically needed for improving management, conservation, and restoration strategies. Here, we combine emerging knowledge from tropical forest succession, forest fragmentation and landscape ecology research to identify the main driving forces shaping successional pathways at different spatial scales. We also explore causal connections between land‐use dynamics and the level of predictability of successional pathways, and examine potential implications of such connections to determine the importance of secondary forests for biodiversity conservation in HMTLs. We show that secondary succession (SS) in tropical landscapes is a multifactorial phenomenon affected by a myriad of forces operating at multiple spatio‐temporal scales. SS is relatively fast and more predictable in recently modified landscapes and where well‐preserved biodiversity‐rich native forests are still present in the landscape. Yet the increasing variation in landscape spatial configuration and matrix heterogeneity in landscapes with intermediate levels of disturbance increases the uncertainty of successional pathways. In landscapes that have suffered extensive and intensive human disturbances, however, succession can be slow or arrested, with impoverished assemblages and reduced potential to deliver ecosystem functions and services. We conclude that: (i) succession must be examined using more comprehensive explanatory models, providing information about the forces affecting not only the presence but also the persistence of species and ecological groups, particularly of those taxa expected to be extirpated from HMTLs; (ii) SS research should integrate new aspects from forest fragmentation and landscape ecology research to address accurately the potential of secondary forests to serve as biodiversity repositories; and (iii) secondary forest stands, as a dynamic component of HMTLs, must be incorporated as key elements of conservation planning; i.e. secondary forest stands must be actively managed (e.g. using assisted forest restoration) according to conservation goals at broad spatial scales.     

Dendrochronological potential of four neotropical dry-forest tree species: Climate-growth correlations in northeast Brazil

Tropical dry forests (TDF) are highly important tropical forest ecosystems. Yet, these forests are highly threatened, usually neglected and only poorly studied. Understanding the long-term influences of environmental conditions on tree growth in these forests is crucial to understand the functioning, carbon dynamics and potential responses to future climate change of these forests. Dendrochronology can be used as a tool to provide these insights but has only scantly been applied in (dry) tropical forests. Here we evaluate the dendrochronological potential of four Caatinga neotropical dry forest tree species – Aspidosperma pyrifolium, Ziziphus joazeiro, Tabebuia aurea, and Libidibia ferrea – collected in two locations in northeastern Brazil (Sergipe state). We provide an anatomical characterization of the ring boundaries for the four species and investigate correlations of their growth with local and regional climatic variables. All four species form annual rings and show high inter-correlation (up to 0.806) and sensitivity (up to 0.565). Growth of all species correlated with local precipitation as well as with sea-surface temperatures in the tropical Atlantic and/or tropical Pacific oceans. We also show teleconnections between growth and the El Niño South Oscillation. The strong dependence of tree on precipitation is worrisome, considering that climate change scenarios forecast increased drought conditions in the Caatinga dry forest. Including more species and expanding dendrochronological studies to more areas would greatly improve our understanding of tree growth and functioning in TDFs. This type of knowledge is essential to assist the conservation, management and restoration of these critical tropical ecosystems.     

Implementing an organised cervical screening programme in the Republic of Moldova—Stakeholder identification and engagement

IntroductionSuccessfully implementing cervical screening programmes requires them to be adapted to the local context and have broad stakeholder support. This can be achieved by actively engaging local stakeholders in planning as well as implementing the programmes. The Moldovan government started implementing an organised cervical screening programme in 2010 with the first step being stakeholder identification and engagement.Materials and methodsThis process started by contacting easily identified stakeholders with each asked to recommend others and the process continued until no new ones were identified. Stakeholders were then involved in a series of individual and group meetings over a 2-year period to build confidence and encourage progressively greater engagement.ResultsIn total, 87 individuals from 46 organisations were identified. Over the 2-year process, the individual and group meetings facilitated a change in stakeholder attitudes from disinterest, to acceptance and finally to active cooperation in designing the screening programme and preparing an implementation plan that were both well adapted to the Moldovan context.DiscussionDeveloping the broad support needed to implement cervical screening programmes required ongoing interaction with stakeholders over an extended period. This interaction allowed stakeholder concerns to be identified and addressed, progress to be demonstrated, and stakeholders to be educated about organised screening programmes so they had the knowledge to progressively take greater responsibility and ownership.     

Indigenous Knowledge and Management of Araucaria Araucana Forest in the Chilean Andes: Implications for Native Forest Conservation

Southern Chile experienced serious deforestation during the past century and it is projected that by the year 2025 Chile will be devoid of native forests. One of the most important endemic tree species of the country and at the same time one of the most endangered ones is Araucaria araucana (Mol.) C. Koch, the monkey-puzzle tree. It grows in the Andes Mountains, homeland of the indigenous Mapuche Pewenche people who depend on this tree. This paper is based on participatory field research with a Mapuche Pewenche community in the southern Chilean Andes on their ecological knowledge, values, use and management of the Araucaria araucana forest. It attempts to reveal how indigenous people and their knowledge contribute to the sustainable management of these forests. The paper (1) illustrates the complexity of indigenous ecological knowledge of Araucaria araucana and its efficacy in native forest management, (2) explores the link between the conservation and use of biodiversity by the indigenous people, and (3) provides answers relevant to native forest management and conservation strategies ex-situ and in-situ incorporating indigenous and scientific knowledge, thus providing a contribution towards integrated natural resource management.     

Regional and local determinants of drought resilience in tropical forests

The increase in severity of droughts associated with greater mortality and reduced vegetation growth is one of the main threats to tropical forests. Drought resilience of tropical forests is affected by multiple biotic and abiotic factors varying at different scales. Identifying those factors can help understanding the resilience to ongoing and future climate change. Altitude leads to high climate variation and to different forest formations, principally moist or dry tropical forests with contrasted vegetation structure. Each tropical forest can show distinct responses to droughts. Locally, topography is also a key factor controlling biotic and abiotic factors related to drought resilience in each forest type. Here, we show that topography has key roles controlling biotic and abiotic factors in each forest type. The most important abiotic factors are soil nutrients, water availability, and microclimate. The most important biotic factors are leaf economic and hydraulic plant traits, and vegetation structure. Both dry tropical forests and ridges (steeper and drier habitats) are more sensitive to droughts than moist tropical forest and valleys (flatter and wetter habitats). The higher mortality in ridges suggests that conservative traits are not sufficient to protect plants from drought in drier steeper habitats. Our synthesis highlights that altitude and topography gradients are essential to understand mechanisms of tropical forest''s resilience to future drought events. We described important factors related to drought resilience, however, many important knowledge gaps remain. Filling those gaps will help improve future practices and studies about mitigation capacity, conservation, and restoration of tropical ecosystems.     

日本演习林制度对中国生物多样性保护与国家公园建设的启示

演习林是日本通过农林院校管辖和运行的自然林地与人工林, 兼具科教、生物多样性保护、生态旅游与林木生产等功能。演习林的责、权、利明确, 能够实现长期、稳定的保护与利用, 与自然保护区、国家公园既有区别又相辅相成, 是日本经济协调发展与快速实现生态恢复的一个重要保障。目前, 日本约有30所高等院校拥有演习林, 演习林面积约占日本森林总面积的5‰, 其中东京大学的演习林建立最早、运行与管理机制最为完善。演习林主要有三大功能: 教学实践、科学研究、社会服务。演习林主要负责人是大学教师, 教师既参与科教也参与管理, 实现了教授治校、科教与社会服务的协调发展。当前, 我国正处于生物多样性保护的转型期和国家公园试点建设的关键阶段, 农林类高校或研究所可借鉴日本演习林制度, 主动参与到国家“绿水青山就是金山银山”的绿色发展理念和实践中; 涉及生物学与农林学科的科学工作者应积极承担当地自然保护区、森林公园、国家公园等的建设与管护。政府可以引导和吸纳有着充足研究经费、学术水平较高的农林与生物学类高校(特别是相关学科被列入“世界一流学科”建设行列的高校)在有条件的自然保护区或城市周边开辟高校直辖林地, 实现教学实践、研究与保护、社会服务等共建共存模式, 提升我国高校农林与生物学科研究水平, 促进我国生物多样性的可持续保护和国家公园的高标准建设。     

The Contribution of Tropical Secondary Forest Fragments to the Conservation of Fruit-feeding Butterflies: Effects of Isolation and Age

Concomitant with the rapid loss of tropical mature forests, the relative abundance of secondary forests is increasing steadily and the latter are therefore of growing interest for conservation. We analysed species richness of fruit-feeding nymphalid butterflies in secondary forest fragments of different age and isolation and in mature forest at the eastern margin of the Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. From April to August 2001 we collected 2322 individuals of fruit-feeding butterflies, belonging to 33 species. Butterfly species richness increased with succession, but was significantly higher in mature forests than in all types of secondary forest. Isolation of the forest fragments did not have a significant effect on butterfly species richness in the range of distances (up to 1700 m) studied. Rather it appeared to affect only a few species. Species richness of endemic species was higher than of non-endemic species. Although endemic species were most diverse in mature forests, many species captured were restricted to secondary forests. Our results show that mature forest is essential for the conservation of nymphalid butterflies and for the endemic species in this area. However, considering the relatively large number of species found in these rather small habitat islands, secondary forest fragments, especially older successional stages, can be taken into account in conservation efforts and thus contribute to the preservation of tropical biodiversity on a landscape scale.     

New strategies for conserving tropical forests

In an interval of just 1-2 decades, the nature of tropical forest destruction has changed. Rather than being dominated by rural farmers, tropical deforestation now is substantially driven by major industries and economic globalization, with timber operations, oil and gas development, large-scale farming and exotic-tree plantations being the most frequent causes of forest loss. Although instigating serious challenges, such changes are also creating important new opportunities for forest conservation. Here we argue that, by increasingly targeting strategic corporations and trade groups with public-pressure campaigns, conservation interests could have a much stronger influence on the fate of tropical forests.     

Measuring the Conservation Value of Tropical Primary Forests: The Effect of Occasional Species on Estimates of Biodiversity Uniqueness

Background

Developing effective conservation plans for multi-functional landscapes requires an accurate knowledge of the relative conservation value of different land-uses. A growing number of tropical ecologists have evaluated conservation value using the number (or proportion) of species that are unique to primary or old-growth forests. However, estimates of the conservation value of modified land-uses may be inflated by the presence of occasional species (e.g. singletons and doubletons) that may be unable to exist as viable populations in isolation.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We use a unique 15-taxa dataset from a mixed-use forest landscape in the Brazilian Amazon to test the hypothesis that the removal of occasional species from sample data can increase estimates of the value of primary forest for biodiversity conservation.

Conclusions/Significance

Estimates of conservation value that are based on the proportion of species that are unique to tropical primary or old-growth forests are highly sensitive to decisions researchers make regarding the inclusion or exclusion of occasional species. By removing singletons from modified forest samples, and considering only those species known to occur in primary forest, we almost double estimates of the conservation value of tropical primary forests.     

Synthesis: Sharing Ecological Knowledge—The Way Forward

Knowledge sharing between scientists and nonscientist stakeholders is necessary to implement research findings in an appropriate and effective manner within the context of the environment and conservation sectors. Yet scientific ecological knowledge is rarely shared and transferred effectively. This special section has addressed a number of opportunities and barriers to the improvement of scientific communication and knowledge transfer with respect to environmental management in tropical settings. A main challenge is seen in creating a research 'impact-metric' system, which is fundamental to foster knowledge sharing with institutional research incentives. Partnering with local institutions and research centers as well as participatory research methods will promote effective knowledge exchange. Research relevance and impact will be improved by matching interdisciplinary research with local capacity building and support through research activities. We conclude that training the next generation of tropical biologists through more effective knowledge sharing will be crucial to the long term success of scientifically based environmental management in tropical regions.     

Ecological considerations for using dipterocarps for restoration of lowland rainforest in Southeast Asia

The lowland dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia support a substantial proportion of the world’s biodiversity. They are of considerable environmental and economic value at the local, regional and global scale, providing many goods and services to a growing population. The forests of this region are among the fastest disappearing in the world and restoration is urgently required. This paper provides a review of the ecological constraints to restoration of lowland dipterocarp forest in Southeast Asia. It focuses on the production of planting stock, the significance of site-species matching and post-planting site maintenance. It identifies gaps in our knowledge and highlights priority areas of research. Adopting a long-term view is essential for restoring as well as conserving the dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia. An immediate strategy for the conservation and management of dwindling genetic resources of these important timber species is essential. This will provide the foundations for sourcing seed and production of planting material for longer term restoration. The importance of species-site matching, mycorrhizal fungi and post-planting maintenance for restoration are apparent. Financing is a major limiting factor to dipterocarp forest restoration. Trading in carbon, private finance and environmental markets afford considerable opportunities for restoring these forests providing their total value is recognised. Despite the wealth of ecological knowledge we already have for scientifically-informed forest restoration, without the backing of governments and corporate stakeholders, forest restoration will not gain the urgently required momentum.     

Population Growth and Land Use Intensification in a Subsistence-based Indigenous Community in the Amazon

Shifting cultivation practiced by indigenous peoples living at low population densities in tropical forests has often been described as sustainable and compatible with conservation. However, shifting cultivation at increasing population densities has historically been, and still is, a main cause of deforestation worldwide. As many indigenous peoples in tropical forests currently experience rapid demographic growth, this raises the question to what extent their agricultural activities actually contribute to deforestation. This paper examines land use change in an indigenous community in the Ecuadorian Amazon which is only loosely connected to the market economy, and where agriculture is almost exclusively subsistence oriented. During the last seven decades, people have increasingly begun to clear fallows instead of old-growth forest to farm. Although the population was growing at an estimated 1.6% per year, the expansion of the area of land used for agriculture was only 0.4% per year, corresponding to an annual deforestation rate of only 0.015%. Whereas these changes may seem negligible in terms of deforestation, they do cause hardships to the local people, because of increasing walking distance to old-growth forest, and problems with weeds, pests, and decreasing soil productivity when farming after reclearing fallows.     

Influence of diversity and road access on palm extraction at landscape scale in SE Ecuador

The relationship between biodiversity and the activities of small-scale farmers remains poorly understood despite its importance for conservation. In tropical forest areas farmers often include extraction of forest products in their subsistence strategies, and it has been suggested that factors such as market access and diversity levels influence people’s use of forest products. To investigate these relationships, we studied the use of palms in five villages inhabited by colonists and indigenous Shuar in the lower montane forest in south-eastern Ecuador by means of interviews and line transects around the villages. We found that use of palms was not driven by the diversity of palms available in the forest surrounding each village. Instead, the most important factor seemed to be lack of market access so in villages furthest away from the nearest road people used more palm products for their subsistence life compared to villages closer to the road. Forests around more remote villages had higher utility levels when evaluated on the basis of the villagers’ use of palms, despite lower levels of palm diversity and richness in these forests. The lower diversity levels may reflect past human activity or ecological factors, or a combination of both. In either case, our results show that forests with higher diversity levels are not necessarily more valuable to local people compared to less diverse forests. Instead, socio-economic factors such as market access may be more important in shaping people’s relationship with the natural environment.     

中国热带森林植被类型研究历史和划分探讨

热带森林是我国森林植被的重要组成部分,明确其森林植被类型分类对于生物多样性维持机制研究和保护管理等都具有重要意义。该文以中国热带森林植被分类研究中存在的问题为出发点,通过阐述我国各省区植被类型分类的研究历史,在综合考虑多种生物和非生物影响因素的基础上,提出一个新的热带森林植被类型分类框架以供探讨。结果表明:(1)尽管针对我国热带森林的分布范围和群落特征等都已开展了诸多研究,但对我国热带森林植被类型的划分依据和分类体系仍存在争议。(2)尽管我国的热带森林都处于季风气候区带内,但许多热带地区的森林植被类型并不只是受季风影响,而是气候带、关键气候因子、地形、土壤反馈和物种适应等多种因素共同作用的结果。(3)我国的热带森林植被包括5个植被型,即非典型性热带雨林、热带季雨林、热带山地雨林、热带山顶苔藓矮林(热带云雾林)和热带针叶林,其中热带季雨林植被型包含4种植被亚型[热带落叶季雨林、热带半落叶(半常绿)季雨林、热带常绿季雨林和热带石灰岩(石山)季雨林]。(4)阐明了上述热带森林植被型和植被亚型在我国各省区的分布情况,并提出未来有必要对人工恢复后的热带森林进行评估和植被类型划分。综上所述,该文提出一个新的热带森林植被类型分类框架,以期为今后基于不同地区开展热带森林比较研究提供参考。