Offspring dependence on parental care and the role of parental transfer of oral fluids in burying beetles

Background

Immature stages of many animals can forage and feed on their own, whereas others depend on their parents’ assistance to obtain or process food. But how does such dependency evolve, and which offspring and parental traits are involved? Burying beetles (Nicrophorus) provide extensive biparental care, including food provisioning to their offspring. Interestingly, there is substantial variation in the reliance of offspring on post-hatching care among species. Here, we examine the proximate mechanisms underlying offspring dependence, focusing on the larvae of N. orbicollis, which are not able to survive in the absence of parents. We specifically asked whether the high offspring dependence is caused by (1) a low starvation tolerance, (2) a low ability to self-feed or (3) the need to obtain parental oral fluids. Finally, we determined how much care (i.e. duration of care) they require to be able to survive.

Results

We demonstrate that N. orbicollis larvae are not characterized by a lower starvation tolerance than larvae of the more independent species. Hatchlings of N. orbicollis are generally able to self-feed, but the efficiency depends on the kind of food presented and differs from the more independent species. Further, we show that even when providing highly dependent N. orbicollis larvae with easy ingestible liquefied mice carrion, only few of them survived to pupation. However, adding parental oral fluids significantly increased their survival rate. Finally, we demonstrate that survival and growth of dependent N. orbicollis larvae is increased greatly by only a few hours of parental care.

Conclusions

Considering the fact that larvae of other burying beetle species are able to survive in the absence of care, the high dependence of N. orbicollis larvae is puzzling. Even though they have not lost the ability to self-feed, an easily digestible, liquefied carrion meal is not sufficient to ensure their survival. However, our results indicate that the transfer of parental oral fluids is an essential component of care. In the majority of mammals, offspring rely on the exchange of fluids (i.e. milk) to survive, and our findings suggest that even in subsocial insects, such as burying beetles, parental fluids can significantly affect offspring survival.

     

Effects of parental care on the accumulation and release of cryptic genetic variation: <Emphasis Type="Italic">review of mechanisms and a case study of dung beetles</Emphasis>

Cryptic genetic variation plays an important role in the emergence of disease and evolutionary responses to environmental change. Focusing on parental care behavior, we discuss three mechanisms by which behavior can affect the accumulation and release of cryptic genetic variation. We illustrate how these hypotheses might be tested with preliminary data from Onthophagus dung beetles, which provide indirect parental care by provisioning their offspring with dung and sheltering them underground. The environmental stress hypothesis states that parental care reduces selection intensity on novel mutations when increased parental care results in a less stressful offspring environment. A review of recent literature, coupled with an irradiation experiment in beetles, suggests this mechanism may operate in some situations, but depends on the types of mutations under consideration. The relaxed selection hypothesis states that genes expressed in low care environments should be under weakened selection because their phenotypic manifestations are exposed to selection less frequently, and thus are prone to mutation accumulation. If parental care is reduced, for instance due to population-wide environmental changes, such cryptic variation may exert phenotypic effects, becoming exposed to selection. There is substantial theory in support of this hypothesis, and comparisons between beetle populations that differ in parental care behavior further support this idea. Finally, the compensation hypothesis states that organisms with direct parental care may be able to respond to cues or signals from offspring and compensate for genetic variants. We highlight the extensive discussion of this hypothesis with respect to medical care and genetic load in humans and explore invertebrate systems that may constitute powerful models for further inquiry. In summary, several mechanisms exist by which care behavior may shape the accumulation and release of cryptic genetic variation, thereby affecting the potential emergence of diseases and the rate and direction of evolutionary responses to novel environments.     

Detection of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coxiella burnetii</Emphasis> DNA and anti-<Emphasis Type="Italic">Coxiella burnetii</Emphasis> IgG antibodies in precolostral blood samples of stillborn calves in an endemically infected Holstein dairy herd

Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii), an intracellular zoonotic bacterium causing Q fever, occurs widely in cattle herds. After invasion of the pregnant uterus and initial localization in the placenta, active C. burnetii infections may spread to the fetus hematogenously or by the amniotic-oral route and thus may cause abortion, premature delivery, stillbirth, and weak offspring (APSW) complex. In a case-control study, we investigated precolostral blood samples of 56 stillborn calves and 30 live births from a dairy herd endemically infected with C. burnetii “C-cluster” strains and an increased stillbirth rate in primiparous cows. Within the group of the stillborn calves, four precolostral blood samples (7.1%) were tested positive for C. burnetii DNA by PCR and one serum sample (1.8%) positive for anti-C. burnetii IgG antibodies by a commercial ELISA test, respectively. Neither C. burnetii DNA nor anti-C. burnetii IgG antibodies were detected in the samples of calves being born alive. In conclusion, we demonstrated that coxiellaemia and precolostral seroconversion occurred sporadically in stillborn calves from this endemically infected herd. Due to the low detection rates, C. burnetii could not be confirmed to be the cause of the increased stillbirth rate.     

Difference in parenting in two species of burying beetle, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nicrophorus orbicollis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nicrophorus vespilloides</Emphasis>

Burying beetles (Nicrophorus) are model parents among insects, with all studied species known to regurgitate flesh from vertebrate carcasses to their offspring. However, most studies focus on a very few species, yet the interpretation of the function and importance of care is typically generalized to all burying beetles. Here we characterize subtle variation within and between individuals and sexes, and how this variation differs between two species of burying beetle. We find that Nicrophorus orbicollis exhibits low variance, with a normal distribution of parental care provided during peak care periods. In N. vespilloides, however, the distribution is more uniform as values of care are spread across the possible phenotypic spectrum. This suggests that there is stabilizing selection on care in N. orbicollis, but relaxed or disruptive selection in N. vespilloides. Although repeatability was similar between both species, transitions from other care behaviors into feeding were more common in N. orbicollis than N. vespilloides. Thus, while parenting is coarsely similar across the genus, variation in its expression should not be extrapolated to all Nicrophorus. We suggest that subtle variation both within and among species merits greater attention, and could inform us about the factors that lead to different distributions of care.     

Studies on Calf Diarrhoea in Mozambique: Prevalence of Bacterial Pathogens

The prevalence of diarrhoea in calves was investigated in 8 dairy farms in Mozambique at 4 occasions during 2 consecutive years. A total of 1241 calves up to 6 months of age were reared in the farms, and 63 (5%) of them had signs of diarrhoea. Two farms had an overall higher prevalence (13% and 21%) of diarrhoea. Faecal samples were collected from all diarrhoeal calves (n = 63) and from 330 healthy calves and analysed for Salmonella species, Campylobacter jejuni and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). Salmonella spp. was isolated in only 2% of all calves. Campylobacter was isolated in 11% of all calves, irrespective of health condition, and was more frequent (25%) in one of the 2 diarrhoeal farms (p = 0.001). 80% of the isolates were identified as C. jejuni. No ETEC strains were detected among the 55 tested strains from diarrhoeal calves, but 22/55 (40%) strains from diarrhoeal calves and 14/88 (16%) strains from healthy calves carried the K99 adhesin (p = 0.001). 6,757 E. coli isolates were typed with a biochemical fingerprinting method (the PhenePlate?) giving the same E. coli diversity in healthy and diarrhoeal calves. Thus it was concluded: i) the overall prevalence of diarrhoea was low, but 2 farms had a higher prevalence that could be due to an outbreak situation, ii) Salmonella did not seem to be associated with diarrhoea, iii) Campylobacter jejuni was common at one of the 2 diarrhoeal farms and iv) ETEC strains were not found, but K99 antigen was more prevalent in E. coli strains from diarrhoeal calves than from healthy, as well as more prevalent in one diarrhoeal farm.     

A Bird in the Hand Versus Two in the Bush? The Specialist Leafhopper <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dalbulus maidis</Emphasis> (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) Does Not Discriminate Against Sub-optimal Host Plants (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Zea</Emphasis> spp.)

The corn leafhopper [Dalbulus maidis (DeLong & Wolcott)] is a specialist on Zea (Poaceae) that coevolved with maize (Zea mays mays) and its teosinte (Zea spp.) relatives. This study tested the hypothesis that host acceptance by females varies among Zea hosts, and is correlated with variation in defensive levels across those hosts. Prior studies revealed differences in plant defenses among Zea hosts and corresponding differences in corn leafhopper performance. Thus, host acceptance was expected to be correlated with defensive levels and offspring performance across Zea hosts, following the hypothesis that offspring performance mediates host preference. In parallel, host acceptance was expected to be correlated with transitions in life history strategy (perennial to annual life cycle), domestication status (wild to domesticated), and breeding intensity (landrace to hybrid variety) in Zea because variation in defensive levels and corn leafhopper performance were shown in prior studies to be correlated with those transitions. The study’s hypotheses were tested by comparing, under no-choice conditions, host acceptance by corn leafhopper of a suite of Zea hosts encompassing those transitions: perennial teosinte (Zea diploperennis), Balsas teosinte (Zea mays parviglumis), and landrace and commercial hybrid maize. The results did not show differences in host acceptance for oviposition or feeding among the hosts. Thus, under no-choice conditions, all Zea hosts may be similarly acceptable for feeding and oviposition, despite marked ovipositional preferences under choice conditions and poorer offspring performance on teosintes relative to maize shown previously. The results suggested also that oviposition frequency per plant by females was not correlated with their offspring’s performance.     

Genomic clues to the parental origin of the wild flowering cherry <Emphasis Type="Italic">Prunus yedoensis</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">nudiflora</Emphasis> (Rosaceae)

Prunus yedoensis Matsumura is one of the popular ornamental flowering cherry trees native to northeastern Asia, and its wild populations have only been found on Jeju Island, Korea. Previous studies suggested that wild P. yedoensis (P. yedoensis var. nudiflora) is a hybrid species; however, there is no solid evidence on its exact parental origin and genomic organization. In this study, we developed a total of 38 nuclear gene-based DNA markers that can be universally amplifiable in the Prunus species using 586 Prunus Conserved Orthologous Gene Set (Prunus COS). Using the Prunus COS markers, we investigated the genetic structure of wild P. yedoensis populations and evaluated the putative parental species of wild P. yedoensis. Population structure and phylogenetic analysis of 73 wild P. yedoensis accessions and 54 accessions of other Prunus species revealed that the wild P. yedoensis on Jeju Island is a natural homoploid hybrid. Sequence-level comparison of Prunus COS markers between species suggested that wild P. yedoensis might originate from a cross between maternal P. pendula f. ascendens and paternal P. jamasakura. Moreover, approximately 81% of the wild P. yedoensis accessions examined were likely F1 hybrids, whereas the remaining 19% were backcross hybrids resulting from additional asymmetric introgression of parental genotypes. These findings suggest that complex hybridization of the Prunus species on Jeju Island can produce a range of variable hybrid offspring. Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to address issues of the origin, nomenclature, and genetic relationship of ornamental P. yedoensis.     

SSR-based molecular profiling of 237 persimmon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Diospyros kaki</Emphasis> Thunb.) germplasms using an <Emphasis Type="Italic">ASTRINGENCY</Emphasis>-linked marker

Pollination-constant non-astringent (PCNA) trait is desirable in persimmon production because it confers natural astringency loss in mature persimmon fruit. Expression of the PCNA trait requires six homozygous recessive PCNA (ast) alleles at the single ASTRINGENCY (AST) locus in hexaploid persimmon. When crossing non-PCNA accessions to breed PCNA offspring, knowledge of ast and non-PCNA (AST) allele dosage in the parental accessions is important, because more PCNA offspring can segregate from a non-PCNA parent with more ast and fewer AST alleles. Previously, we have demonstrated that a region linked to the AST locus has numerous fragment size polymorphisms with varying numbers of simple sequence repeats. Here, we reveal the polymorphisms in this region in a broad collection of persimmon germplasms. Among 237 accessions, we distinguished 21 AST- and 5 ast-linked fragments with different sizes. Based on the number of fragments detected per individual, we identified 21 non-PCNA accessions with three different ast alleles; by crossing these with a PCNA parent, we obtain PCNA offspring under autohexaploid inheritance. Furthermore, AST and ast allelic combination patterns in hexaploid persimmon were shown to be applicable to cultivar identification of non-PCNA accessions. We directly sequenced ast-linked fragments from 48 accessions with one-size peak of ast-linked fragment and found two distinctive groups of fragments based on single nucleotide polymorphisms. This result suggests that a bottleneck event occurred during ast allele development. We conclude that our fragment size profile can be used to accelerate PCNA breeding that uses non-PCNA parents and to study ast allele accumulation in persimmon.     

Trans-generational specificity within a cnidarian–algal symbiosis

Ocean warming and other anthropogenic stresses threaten the symbiosis between tropical reef cnidarians and their dinoflagellate endosymbionts (Symbiodinium). Offspring of many cnidarians acquire their algal symbionts from the environment, and such flexibility could allow corals to respond to environmental changes between generations. To investigate the effect of both habitat and host genotype on symbiont acquisition, we transplanted aposymbiotic offspring of the common Caribbean octocoral Briareum asbestinum to (1) an environmentally different habitat that lacked B. asbestinum and (2) an environmentally similar habitat where local adults harbored Symbiodinium phylotypes that differed from parental colonies. Symbiont acquisition and establishment of symbioses over time was followed using a within-clade DNA marker (23S chloroplast rDNA) and a within-phylotype marker (unique alleles at a single microsatellite locus). Early in the symbiosis, B. asbestinum juveniles harbored multiple symbiont phylotypes, regardless of source (parent or site). However, with time (~4 yr), offspring established symbioses with the symbiont phylotype dominant in the parental colonies, regardless of transplant location. Within-phylotype analyses of the symbionts revealed a similar pattern, with offspring acquiring the allelic variant common in symbionts in the parental population regardless of the environment in which the offspring was reared. These data suggest that in this host species, host–symbiont specificity is a genetically determined trait. If this level of specificity is widespread among other symbiotic cnidarians, many cnidarian–algal symbioses may not be able to respond to rapid, climate change-associated environmental changes by means of between-generation switching of symbionts.     

An ultra-dense integrated linkage map for hexaploid chrysanthemum enables multi-allelic QTL analysis

Key message

We constructed the first integrated genetic linkage map in a polysomic hexaploid. This enabled us to estimate inheritance of parental haplotypes in the offspring and detect multi-allelic QTL.

Abstract

Construction and use of linkage maps are challenging in hexaploids with polysomic inheritance. Full map integration requires calculations of recombination frequency between markers with complex segregation types. In addition, detection of QTL in hexaploids requires information on all six alleles at one locus for each individual. We describe a method that we used to construct a fully integrated linkage map for chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × morifolium, 2n = 6x = 54). A bi-parental F1 population of 406 individuals was genotyped with an 183,000 SNP genotyping array. The resulting linkage map consisted of 30,312 segregating SNP markers of all possible marker dosage types, representing nine chromosomal linkage groups and 107 out of 108 expected homologues. Synteny with lettuce (Lactuca sativa) showed local colinearity. Overall, it was high enough to number the chrysanthemum chromosomal linkage groups according to those in lettuce. We used the integrated and phased linkage map to reconstruct inheritance of parental haplotypes in the F1 population. Estimated probabilities for the parental haplotypes were used for multi-allelic QTL analyses on four traits with different underlying genetic architectures. This resulted in the identification of major QTL that were affected by multiple alleles having a differential effect on the phenotype. The presented linkage map sets a standard for future genetic mapping analyses in chrysanthemum and closely related species. Moreover, the described methods are a major step forward for linkage mapping and QTL analysis in hexaploids.

     

A Parental Care-Mating Dilemma? Potential Risks for Offspring in the Pholcid Spider When Egg-Carrying Females Accept Mating

Many species face a trade-off between additional mating opportunities and the offspring benefits (viability, quality) provided by parental care. Female Holocnemus pluchei spiders must abandon their egg-sac, which they otherwise carry with their chelicerae, to copulate. This may involve risks for the offspring, such as predation and fungal infection. We assessed whether (1) males discriminate between egg-carrying females according to the egg development stage, (2) females are influenced by the egg development stage in regard to their proneness to mate, and (3) offspring are less likely to survive, due to high humidity and/or predation, in the absence of egg-carrying females. Apparently, males did not distinguish between females according to the developmental stage of the eggs they carried. However, females were more likely to mate when carrying relatively mature versus immature eggs (14–18 days and 3–6 days post-oviposition, respectively). All egg-sacs hatched successfully when guarded by egg-carrying females because this avoided both fungal infections (at high humidity) and cannibalism by conspecific spiders. Thus, H. pluchei females may face a trade-off between mating and parental care. Further research should clarify why egg-carrying females mate and how females prevent their egg-sacs from being infected by fungi.     

The effects of polymorphisms in <Emphasis Type="Italic">growth hormone</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">growth hormone receptor</Emphasis> genes on production and reproduction traits in Aberdeen-Angus cattle (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bos taurus</Emphasis> L., 1758)

The study was aimed to analyze the relation between individual genotypes and allelic variants of SNPs g.2141C>G of growth hormone gene, g.914T>A and g.257A>G of growth hormone receptor gene with growth and reproduction traits and to evaluate the populationgenetic structure in Aberdeen-Angus cattle (Bos taurus L., 1758) sample of Eastern Ukraine according SNPs studied. Allele C of SNP g.2141C>G has a positive correlation with birth weight, body stature, bigger rump, udder and total exterior evaluation score, shorter calving interval and better calve birth weight and negative correlation with calve average daily gain. Allele T of SNP g.914T>A has positive correlation with the muscle and udder size; live weight in each age, average daily gain, weight and average daily gain of calves born conform to the principle AA>TT≥TA. SNP g.257A>G showed a positive correlation for G allele with muscle size. The population is in equilibrium for SNPs g.2141C>G and g.257A>G, and in disequilibrium for SNP g.914T>A. The analysis showed no linkage disequilibrium between SNPs g.914T>A and g.257A>G. Inbreeding coefficient F_ST in Aberdeen-Angus group studied was 16.1%.     

Towards improving tsetse fly paratransgenesis: stable colonization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Glossina morsitans morsitans</Emphasis> with genetically modified <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sodalis</Emphasis>

Background

Tsetse flies (Glossina sp.) refractory to trypanosome infection are currently being explored as potential tools to contribute in the control of human and animal African trypanosomiasis. One approach to disrupt trypanosome transmission by the tsetse fly vector involves the use of paratransgenesis, a technique that aims to reduce vector competence of disease vectors via genetic modification of their microbiota. An important prerequisite for developing paratransgenic tsetse flies is the stable repopulation of tsetse flies and their progeny with its genetically modified Sodalis symbiont without interfering with host fitness.

Results

In this study, we assessed by qPCR analysis the ability of a chromosomally GFP-tagged Sodalis (recSodalis) strain to efficiently colonize various tsetse tissues and its transmission to the next generation of offspring using different introduction approaches. When introduced in the adult stage of the fly via thoracic microinjection, recSodalis is maintained at high densities for at least 21 days. However, no vertical transmission to the offspring was observed. Oral administration of recSodalis did not lead to the colonization of either adult flies or their offspring. Finally, introduction of recSodalis via microinjection of third-instar larvae resulted in stably colonized adult tsetse flies. Moreover, the subsequent generations of offspring were also efficiently colonized with recSodalis. We show that proper colonization of the female reproductive tissues by recSodalis is an important determinant for vertical transmission.

Conclusions

Intralarval microinjection of recSodalis proves to be essential to achieve optimal colonization of flies with genetically modified Sodalis and its subsequent dissemination into the following generations of progeny. This study provides the proof-of-concept that Sodalis can be used to drive expression of exogenous transgenes in Glossina morsitans morsitans colonies representing a valuable contribution to the development of a paratransgenic tsetse fly based control strategy.

     

Divergent life history strategies in congeneric hyperparasitoids

Life histories can reveal important information on the performance of individuals within their environment and how that affects evolutionary change. Major trait changes, such as trait decay or loss, may lead to pronounced differences in life history strategies when tight correlations between traits exist. Here, we show that three congeneric hyperparasitoids (Gelis agilis, Gelis acarorum and Gelis areator) that have diverged in wing development and reproductive mode employ markedly different life history strategies. Potential fecundity of Gelis sp. varied, with the wingless G. acarorum maturing a much higher number of eggs throughout life compared with the other two species. Realized lifetime fecundity, in terms of total offspring number was, however, highest for the winged G. areator. The parthenogenic G. agilis invests its resources solely in females, whilst the sexually reproducing species both invested heavily in males to reduce competitive pressures for their female offspring. Longevity also differed between species, as did the direction of the reproduction-longevity trade-off, where reproduction is heavily traded off against longevity only in the asexual G. agilis. Resting metabolic rates also differed between the winged and wingless species, with the highest metabolic rate observed in the winged G. areator. Overall, these geline hyperparasitoids showed considerable divergence in life history strategies, both in terms of timing and investment patterns. Major trait changes observed between closely related species, such as the loss of wings and sexual reproduction, may contribute to the divergence in key life history traits.     

Prevalence,quantitative load and genetic diversity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Campylobacter</Emphasis> spp. in dairy cattle herds in Lithuania

Background

Campylobacteriosis is a zoonotic disease, and animals such as poultry, pigs and cattle may act as reservoirs for Campylobacter spp. Cattle shed Campylobacter spp. into the environment and they can act as a reservoir for human infection directly via contact with cattle or their faeces or indirectly by consumption of contaminated food. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, the quantitative load and the genetic strain diversity of Campylobacter spp. in dairy cattle of different age groups.

Results

Faecal samples of 200 dairy cattle from three farms in the central part of Lithuania were collected and examined for Campylobacter. Cattle herds of all three farms were Campylobacter spp. positive, with a prevalence ranging from 75% (farm I), 77.5% (farm II) to 83.3% (farm III). Overall, the highest prevalence was detected in calves (86.5%) and heifers (86.2%). In contrast, the lowest Campylobacter prevalence was detectable in dairy cows (60.6%). C. jejuni, C. coli, C. lari and C. fetus subsp. fetus were identified in faecal samples of dairy cattle. C. upsaliensis was not detectable in any sample. The high counts of Campylobacter spp. were observed in faecal material of dairy cattle (average 4.5 log₁₀ cfu/g). The highest numbers of Campylobacter spp. were found in faecal samples from calves (average 5.3 log₁₀ cfu/g), whereas, faecal samples from cows harboured the lowest number of Campylobacter spp. (average 3.7 log₁₀ cfu/g). Genotyping by fla A PCR-RFLP analysis of selected C. jejuni isolates showed that some genotypes were present in all farms and all age groups. However, farm or age specific genotypes were also identified.

Conclusions

Future studies are needed to investigate risk factors related to the degree of colonisation in cattle. Based on that, possible measures to reduce the colonisation and subsequent shedding of Campylobacter in cattle could be established. It is important to further investigate the epidemiology of Campylobacter in the cattle population in order to assess associated risks to public health.

     

Life history of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gymnotus refugio</Emphasis> (Gymnotiformes; Gymnotidae): an endangered species of weakly electric fish

The present study describes the life history of Gymnotus refugio, a species classified as Endangered in the last published list of threatened species of the Brazilian fauna. The study was conducted at a conservation unity that protect one of the last remaining semideciduous forests in the region. The reproductive period was estimated as occurring from the end of winter to the last summer months. Gymnotus refugio exibited fractional spawning, the lowest relative fecundity registered among the Gymnotifomes species studied at the present, and male parental care behavior. The analyses showed a seasonal pattern on the species diet, associating different food categories to winter, autumn, and spring. According to food items analysis and estimated intestinal quotient, G. refugio was classified as invertivorous, feeding mainly on autochthonous insects. The results obtained herein suggest that the position of G. refugio as an Endangered species might be influenced by its territoriality, habitat specificity, parental care behavior, and low fecundity, reinforcing the importance of swampy forest environment conservation as the only means of the species maintenance.     

Nucleolar organizing regions (NORs) of common vole chromosomes as nuclear markers of genome differentiation in data from a hybrid zone of two karyoforms, <Emphasis Type="Italic">arvalis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">obscurus</Emphasis>

Contrasting chromosome location of nucleolar organizing regions (NORs), a poorly studied differentiating feature of two karyoforms of the 46-chromosome common voles, arvalis and obscurus, is demonstrated in the heterozygous karyotype of a natural hybrid from the arvalis/obscurus contact zone in European Russia. It was deduced from the karyotype analysis that the obscurus form was parental in this case and the arvalis form was defined as maternal via the markers of the mitochondrial genome. The similarities in the levels of chromosome polytypy and the lineage differentiation of the arvalis/obscurus and obscurus mitochondrial genomes according to the new and earlier published data is noticeable.     

Effect of Milk Fermented with Lactic Acid Bacteria on Diarrheal Incidence,Growth Performance and Microbiological and Blood Profiles of Newborn Dairy Calves

The effect of the administration of milk fermented with lactic acid bacteria to calves was evaluated. The strains included were: Lactobacillus murinus CRL1695, Lact. mucosae CRL1696, Lact. johnsonii CRL1693, and Lact. salivarius CRL1702, which were selected for their beneficial and functional properties and isolated from healthy calves in the northwestern region of Argentina. The trial was conducted on a dairy farm located in Tucumán (Holando-Argentino calves). A randomized controlled trial was performed in which 56 new-born animals were divided into two groups: the treated group (T) received the fermented milk for 60 days and the control group (C) only milk. The animals were fed a solid diet ad libitum. The treated group was given a daily dose of 1 × 10⁹CFU of the probiotic fermented milk while the control group was fed milk. Body weight and biometrical parameters were recorded between 15 and 60 days of age, and average daily gain was calculated with three samplings per animal throughout the trial. Rectal swabs and fecal and blood samples were also collected. Results showed the efficacy of the probiotic: lower morbidity and mortality of calves (morbidity was 69.20% in animals without the probiotic, and 46.15% in probiotic-treated animals, with P = 0.09; mortality in C was 34.61 and 7.69% in animals fed with ferment milk; P = 0.02).The calves fed with probiotic evidenced an improvement in nutritional parameters, body condition and weight gain (health index P = 0.01; average daily gain P = 0.03).Viable bacterial numbers showed no differences between the two experimental groups. Hematological parameters and serum proteins were not modified by the treatment. The results suggest that the fermented milk containing lactic acid bacteria can be a viable veterinary product for young calves due to its beneficial effects on health and growth.     

Effective strategies for scaling up evidence-based practices in primary care: a systematic review

Background

While an extensive array of existing evidence-based practices (EBPs) have the potential to improve patient outcomes, little is known about how to implement EBPs on a larger scale. Therefore, we sought to identify effective strategies for scaling up EBPs in primary care.

Methods

We conducted a systematic review with the following inclusion criteria: (i) study design: randomized and non-randomized controlled trials, before-and-after (with/without control), and interrupted time series; (ii) participants: primary care-related units (e.g., clinical sites, patients); (iii) intervention: any strategy used to scale up an EBP; (iv) comparator: no restrictions; and (v) outcomes: no restrictions. We searched MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science, CINAHL, and the Cochrane Library from database inception to August 2016 and consulted clinical trial registries and gray literature. Two reviewers independently selected eligible studies, then extracted and analyzed data following the Cochrane methodology. We extracted components of scaling-up strategies and classified them into five categories: infrastructure, policy/regulation, financial, human resources-related, and patient involvement. We extracted scaling-up process outcomes, such as coverage, and provider/patient outcomes. We validated data extraction with study authors.

Results

We included 14 studies. They were published since 2003 and primarily conducted in low-/middle-income countries (n?=?11). Most were funded by governmental organizations (n?=?8). The clinical area most represented was infectious diseases (HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria, n?=?8), followed by newborn/child care (n?=?4), depression (n?=?1), and preventing seniors’ falls (n?=?1). Study designs were mostly before-and-after (without control, n?=?8). The most frequently targeted unit of scaling up was the clinical site (n?=?11). The component of a scaling-up strategy most frequently mentioned was human resource-related (n?=?12). All studies reported patient/provider outcomes. Three studies reported scaling-up coverage, but no study quantitatively reported achieving a coverage of 80% in combination with a favorable impact.

Conclusions

We found few studies assessing strategies for scaling up EBPs in primary care settings. It is uncertain whether any strategies were effective as most studies focused more on patient/provider outcomes and less on scaling-up process outcomes. Minimal consensus on the metrics of scaling up are needed for assessing the scaling up of EBPs in primary care.

Trial registration

This review is registered as PROSPERO CRD42016041461.