Evaluation of a Disinfectant Wipe Intervention on Fomite-to-Finger Microbial Transfer

Inanimate surfaces, or fomites, can serve as routes of transmission of enteric and respiratory pathogens. No previous studies have evaluated the impact of surface disinfection on the level of pathogen transfer from fomites to fingers. Thus, the present study investigated the change in microbial transfer from contaminated fomites to fingers following disinfecting wipe use. Escherichia coli (10⁸ to 10⁹ CFU/ml), Staphylococcus aureus (10⁹ CFU/ml), Bacillus thuringiensis spores (10⁷ to 10⁸ CFU/ml), and poliovirus 1 (10⁸ PFU/ml) were seeded on ceramic tile, laminate, and granite in 10-μl drops and allowed to dry for 30 min at a relative humidity of 15 to 32%. The seeded fomites were treated with a disinfectant wipe and allowed to dry for an additional 10 min. Fomite-to-finger transfer trials were conducted to measure concentrations of transferred microorganisms on the fingers after the disinfectant wipe intervention. The mean log₁₀ reduction of the test microorganisms on fomites by the disinfectant wipe treatment varied from 1.9 to 5.0, depending on the microorganism and the fomite. Microbial transfer from disinfectant-wipe-treated fomites was lower (up to <0.1% on average) than from nontreated surfaces (up to 36.3% on average, reported in our previous study) for all types of microorganisms and fomites. This is the first study quantifying microbial transfer from contaminated fomites to fingers after the use of disinfectant wipe intervention. The data generated in the present study can be used in quantitative microbial risk assessment models to predict the effect of disinfectant wipes in reducing microbial exposure.     

Residual Viral and Bacterial Contamination of Surfaces after Cleaning and Disinfection

Environmental surfaces contaminated with pathogens can be sources of indirect transmission, and cleaning and disinfection are common interventions focused on reducing contamination levels. We determined the efficacy of cleaning and disinfection procedures for reducing contamination by noroviruses, rotavirus, poliovirus, parechovirus, adenovirus, influenza virus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella enterica from artificially contaminated stainless steel surfaces. After a single wipe with water, liquid soap, or 250-ppm free chlorine solution, the numbers of infective viruses and bacteria were reduced by 1 log₁₀ for poliovirus and close to 4 log₁₀ for influenza virus. There was no significant difference in residual contamination levels after wiping with water, liquid soap, or 250-ppm chlorine solution. When a single wipe with liquid soap was followed by a second wipe using 250- or 1,000-ppm chlorine, an extra 1- to 3-log₁₀ reduction was achieved, and except for rotavirus and norovirus genogroup I, no significant additional effect of 1,000 ppm compared to 250 ppm was found. A reduced correlation between reduction in PCR units (PCRU) and reduction in infectious particles suggests that at least part of the reduction achieved in the second step is due to inactivation instead of removal alone. We used data on infectious doses and transfer efficiencies to estimate a target level to which the residual contamination should be reduced and found that a single wipe with liquid soap followed by a wipe with 250-ppm free chlorine solution was sufficient to reduce the residual contamination to below the target level for most of the pathogens tested.     

Wipes Coated with a Singlet-Oxygen-Producing Photosensitizer Are Effective against Human Influenza Virus but Not against Norovirus

Transmission of enteric and respiratory viruses, including human norovirus (hNoV) and human influenza virus, may involve surfaces. In food preparation and health care settings, surfaces are cleaned with wipes; however, wiping may not efficiently reduce contamination or may even spread viruses, increasing a potential public health risk. The virucidal properties of wipes with a singlet-oxygen-generating immobilized photosensitizer (IPS) coating were compared to those of similar but uncoated wipes (non-IPS) and of commonly used viscose wipes. Wipes were spiked with hNoV GI.4 and GII.4, murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1), human adenovirus type 5 (hAdV-5), and influenza virus H1N1 to study viral persistence. We also determined residual and transferred virus proportions on steel carriers after successively wiping a contaminated and an uncontaminated steel carrier. On IPS wipes only, influenza viruses were promptly inactivated with a 5-log₁₀ reduction. D values of infectious MNV-1 and hAdV-5 were 8.7 and 7.0 h on IPS wipes, 11.6 and 9.3 h on non-IPS wipes, and 10.2 and 8.2 h on viscose wipes, respectively. Independently of the type of wipe, dry cleaning removed, or drastically reduced, initial spot contamination of hNoV on surfaces. All wipes transferred hNoV to an uncontaminated carrier; however, the risk of continued transmission by reuse of wipes after 6 and 24 h was limited for all viruses. We conclude that cleaning wet spots with dry wipes efficiently reduced spot contamination on surfaces but that cross-contamination with noroviruses by wiping may result in an increased public health risk at high initial virus loads. For influenza virus, IPS wipes present an efficient one-step procedure for cleaning and disinfecting contaminated surfaces.     

Sorting through the Wealth of Options: Comparative Evaluation of Two Ultraviolet Disinfection Systems

Background

Environmental surfaces play an important role in the transmission of healthcare-associated pathogens. Because environmental cleaning is often suboptimal, there is a growing demand for safe, rapid, and automated disinfection technologies, which has lead to a wealth of novel disinfection options available on the market. Specifically, automated ultraviolet-C (UV-C) devices have grown in number due to the documented efficacy of UV-C for reducing healthcare-acquired pathogens in hospital rooms. Here, we assessed and compared the impact of pathogen concentration, organic load, distance, and radiant dose on the killing efficacy of two analogous UV-C devices.

Principal Findings

The devices performed equivalently for each impact factor assessed. Irradiation delivered for 41 minutes at 4 feet from the devices consistently reduced C. difficile spores by ∼ 3 log₁₀CFU/cm², MRSA by>4 log₁₀CFU/cm², and VRE by >5 log₁₀CFU/cm². Pathogen concentration did not significantly impact the killing efficacy of the devices. However, both a light and heavy organic load had a significant negative impacted on the killing efficacy of the devices. Additionally, increasing the distance to 10 feet from the devices reduced the killing efficacy to ≤3 log₁₀CFU/cm² for MRSA and VRE and <2 log₁₀CFU/cm² for C.difficile spores. Delivery of reduced timed doses of irradiation particularly impacted the ability of the devices to kill C. difficile spores. MRSA and VRE were reduced by >3 log₁₀CFU/cm² after only 10 minutes of irradiation, while C. difficile spores required 40 minutes of irradiation to achieve a similar reduction.

Conclusions

The UV-C devices were equally effective for killing C. difficile spores, MRSA, and VRE. While neither device would be recommended as a stand-alone disinfection procedure, either device would be a useful adjunctive measure to routine cleaning in healthcare facilities.     

Treatment with chlorous acid to inhibit spores of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris in aqueous suspension and on apples

Aim: To test the efficacy of a chemical (chlorous acid) for reducing the numbers of viable Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spores in laboratory media and on apples. Methods and Results: Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spores in aqueous suspension and on apple surfaces of four different cultivars were treated with 268 ppm chlorous acid. Treatment with 268 ppm chlorous acid sharply reduced the numbers of spores of A. acidoterrestris in laboratory media by 1·6, 4·3, and 7·0 log₁₀ reductions for 5, 10, and 15 min treatments, respectively. Chlorous acid also effectively reduced the spore load on apple surfaces. Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris spore counts were significantly reduced by about 5 log₁₀ after 10 min treatment on four different apple cultivars (‘Red Delicious’, ‘Golden Delicious’,’ Gala’, and ‘Fuji’). There was no synergistic effect on spore reduction when chlorous acid treatment was combined with heat. Conclusions: These results show that chlorous acid is highly efficacious against A. acidoterrestris spores on apple surfaces. Significance and Impact of the Study: Chlorous acid can be used as an alternative sanitizer of chlorine to control a major A. acidoterrestris contamination source in juice processing plants.     

Novel Strategies for Enhanced Removal of Persistent Bacillus anthracis Surrogates and Clostridium difficile Spores from Skin

Background

Removing spores of Clostridium difficile and Bacillus anthracis from skin is challenging because they are resistant to commonly used antimicrobials and soap and water washing provides only modest efficacy. We hypothesized that hygiene interventions incorporating a sporicidal electrochemically generated hypochlorous acid solution (Vashe^®) would reduce the burden of spores on skin.

Methods

Hands of volunteers were inoculated with non-toxigenic C. difficile spores or B. anthracis spore surrogates to assess the effectiveness of Vashe solution for reducing spores on skin. Reduction in spores was compared for Vashe hygiene interventions versus soap and water (control). To determine the effectiveness of Vashe solution for removal of C. difficile spores from the skin of patients with C. difficile infection (CDI), reductions in levels of spores on skin were compared for soap and water versus Vashe bed baths.

Results

Spore removal from hands was enhanced with Vashe soak (>2.5 log₁₀ reduction) versus soap and water wash or soak (~2.0 log₁₀ reduction; P <0.05) and Vashe wipes versus alcohol wipes (P <0.01). A combined approach of soap and water wash followed by soaking in Vashe removed >3.5 log₁₀ spores from hands (P <0.01 compared to washing or soaking alone). Bed baths using soap and water (N =26 patients) did not reduce the percentage of positive skin cultures for CDI patients (64% before versus 57% after bathing; P =0.5), whereas bathing with Vashe solution (N =21 patients) significantly reduced skin contamination (54% before versus 8% after bathing; P =0.0001). Vashe was well-tolerated with no evidence of adverse effects on skin.

Conclusions

Vashe was safe and effective for reducing the burden of B. anthracis surrogates and C. difficile spores on hands. Bed baths with Vashe were effective for reducing C. difficile on skin. These findings suggest a novel strategy to reduce the burden of spores on skin.     

Room temperature sterilization of surfaces and fabrics with a One Atmosphere Uniform Glow Discharge Plasma

We report the results of an interdisciplinary collaboration formed to assess the sterilizing capabilities of the One Atmosphere Uniform Glow Discharge Plasma (OAUGDP). This newly-invented source of glow discharge plasma (the fourth state of matter) is capable of operating at atmospheric pressure in air and other gases, and of providing antimicrobial active species to surfaces and workpieces at room temperature as judged by viable plate counts. OAUGDP exposures have reduced log numbers of bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, and endospores from Bacillus stearothermophilus and Bacillus subtilis on seeded solid surfaces, fabrics, filter paper, and powdered culture media at room temperature. Initial experimental data showed a two-log₁₀ CFU reduction of bacteria when 2 × 10² cells were seeded on filter paper. Results showed ≥3 log₁₀ CFU reduction when polypropylene samples seeded with E. coli (5 × 10⁴) were exposed, while a 30 s exposure time was required for similar killing with S. aureus-seeded polypropylene samples. The exposure times required to effect ≥6 log₁₀ CFU reduction of E. coli and S. aureus on polypropylene samples were no longer than 30 s. Experiments with seeded samples in sealed commercial sterilization bags showed little or no differences in exposure times compared to unwrapped samples. Plasma exposure times of less than 5 min generated ≥5 log₁₀ CFU reduction of commercially prepared Bacillus subtilis spores (1 × 10⁶); 7 min OAUGDP exposures were required to generate a ≥3 log₁₀ CFU reduction for Bacillus stearothermophilus spores. For all microorganisms tested, a biphasic curve was generated when the number of survivors vs time was plotted in dose-response cures. Several proposed mechanisms of killing at room temperature by the OAUGDP are discussed. Received 06 June 1997/ Accepted in revised form 01 November 1997     

Effect of NaOH (caustic wash) on the viability, surface characteristics and adhesion of spores of a Geobacillus sp. isolated from a milk powder production line

Aim: To investigate the viability, surface characteristics and ability of spores of a Geobacillus sp. isolated from a milk powder production line to adhere to stainless steel surfaces before and after a caustic (NaOH) wash used in clean‐in‐place regimes. Methods and Results: Exposing sessile spores to 1% NaOH at 65°C for 30 min decreased spore viability by two orders of magnitude. The zeta potential of the caustic treated spores decreased from ?20 to ?32 mV and they became more hydrophobic. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that caustic treated spores contained breaks in their spore coat. Under flow conditions, caustic treated spores suspended in 0·1 mol l^?1 KCl were shown to attach to stainless steel in significantly greater numbers (4·6 log₁₀ CFU cm^?2) than untreated spores (3·6 log₁₀ CFU cm^?2). Conclusions: This research suggests that spores surviving a caustic wash will have a greater propensity to attach to stainless steel surfaces. Significance of Study: The practice of recycling caustic wash solutions may increase the risk of contaminating dairy processing surfaces with spores.     

Development of a bacteriophage model system to investigate virus inactivation methods used in the treatment of bone allografts

Bone allografts are commonly used in a variety of surgical procedures, to reconstruct lost bone stock and to provide mechanical support during the healing process. Due to concerns regarding the possibility of disease transmission from donor to recipient, and of contamination of grafts during retrieval and processing procedures, it is common practice to sterilise bone allografts prior to issue for clinical use. It is vital that the sterilisation processes applied to allografts are validated to demonstrate that they achieve the required level of bioburden reduction, and by extension that validated models are used for these studies. Two common sterilisation protocols applied to bone allografts are gamma irradiation and ethylene oxide gas sterilisation, and there are currently no validated models available for measuring the anti-viral efficacy of ethylene oxide treatment with regard to bone allografts or readily useable models for assessing the anti-viral efficiency of gamma irradiation treatment. We have developed and validated models for both these sterilisation processes, using the bacteriophage ϕ×174, and utilised the models to measure the antiviral activity of the standard ethylene oxide and gamma irradiation sterilisation processes applied to bone allografts by the National Blood Service. For the irradiation model, we also utilised bacterial spores (Bacillus pumilus). Our results show that ethylene oxide sterilisation (which can only be applied to lyophilised grafts) inactivated >6.1log₁₀ of the model virus, and gamma irradiation (at 25–40 kGy and applied to frozen allografts) inactivated 3.6–4.0log₁₀ of the model virus and >4log₁₀ of the bacterial spores. Gamma irradiation at this dosage is therefore not in itself a sterilisation process with respect to viruses.     

Evaluation of a Wipe Surface Sample Method for Collection of Bacillus Spores from Nonporous Surfaces

Polyester-rayon blend wipes were evaluated for efficiency of extraction and recovery of powdered Bacillus atrophaeus spores from stainless steel and painted wallboard surfaces. Method limits of detection were also estimated for both surfaces. The observed mean efficiency of polyester-rayon blend wipe recovery from stainless steel was 0.35 with a standard deviation of ±0.12, and for painted wallboard it was 0.29 with a standard deviation of ±0.15. Evaluation of a sonication extraction method for the polyester-rayon blend wipes produced a mean extraction efficiency of 0.93 with a standard deviation of ±0.09. Wipe recovery quantitative limits of detection were estimated at 90 CFU per unit of stainless steel sample area and 105 CFU per unit of painted wallboard sample area. The method recovery efficiency and limits of detection established in this work provide useful guidance for the planning of incident response environmental sampling following the release of a biological agent such as Bacillus anthracis.     

A Comparative Study of the Bactericidal Activity and Daily Disinfection Housekeeping Surfaces by a New Portable Pulsed UV Radiation Device

Daily cleaning and disinfecting of non-critical surfaces in the patient-care areas are known to reduce the occurrence of health care-associated infections. However, the conventional means for decontamination of housekeeping surfaces of sites of frequent hand contact such as manual disinfection using ethanol wipes are laborious and time-consuming in daily practice. This study evaluated a newly developed portable pulsed ultraviolet (UV) radiation device for its bactericidal activity in comparison with continuous UV-C, and investigated its effect on the labor burden when implemented in a hospital ward. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Acinetobacter baumannii, Amikacin and Ciprofloxacin-resistant A. baumannii, Staphylococcus aureus, Methicillin-resistant S. aureus and Bacillus cereus were irradiated with pulsed UV or continuous UV-C. Pulsed UV and continuous UV-C required 5 and 30 s of irradiation, respectively, to attain bactericidal activity with more than 2Log growth inhibition of all the species. The use of pulsed UV in daily disinfection of housekeeping surfaces reduced the working hours by half in comparison to manual disinfection using ethanol wipes. The new portable pulsed UV radiation device was proven to have a bactericidal activity against critical nosocomial bacteria, including antimicrobial-resistant bacteria after short irradiation, and was thus found to be practical as a method for disinfecting housekeeping surfaces and decreasing the labor burden.     

Formulation and Delivery of the Bacterial Antagonist Bacillus subtilis for Management of Lentil Vascular Wilt Caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis

Different formulations of Bacillus subtilis were prepared using standard laboratory protocols. Bacillus subtilis survived in glucose and talc powders at 8.6 and 7.8 log₁₀ CFU/g, respectively, for 1 year of storage at room temperature compared with 3.5 log₁₀ CFU/g on a peat formulation. Glasshouse experiments using soil and seed treatments were conducted to test the efficacy of B. subtilis for protecting lentil against the wilt disease caused by Fusariumoxysporum f. sp. lentis. Seed treatments with formulations of B. subtilis on glucose, talc and peat significantly enhanced its biocontrol activity against Fusarium compared with a treatment in which spores were applied directly to seed. The formulations decreased disease severity by reducing colonization of plants by the pathogen, promoting their growth and increased the dry weight of lentil plants. Of these treatments the glucose and talc‐based powder formulations were more effective than the peat formulation and the spore application without a carrier. It was shown that the B. subtilis spores applied with glucose were viable for longer than those applied with other carriers. Seed treatment with these formulated spores is an effective delivery system that can provide a conducive environment for B. subtilis to suppress vascular wilt disease on lentil and has the potential for utilization in commercial field application.     

Antimicrobial efficiency of titanium dioxide‐coated surfaces

Aims: Development and evaluation of an antimicrobially active titanium dioxide coating. Methods and results: For this purpose, titanium dioxide coatings were applied to glass slides by using a sol‐gel method and then exposed to a light source. The antimicrobial efficiency was determined by a count reduction test for selected test strains (Aspergillus niger, Bacillus atrophaeus, Kocuria rhizophila), which were homogenously sprayed onto surface. The bacterial count of K. rhizophila was reduced by up to 3·3 log₁₀ on titanium dioxide samples within 4 h of UV‐A light exposure. Experiments with spore formers did not lead to any significant log reduction. A further aspect of this work was to evaluate the effect of selected parameters (relative humidity, inoculation density, radiation intensity) on the antimicrobial efficiency to gain knowledge for further optimization procedures. At a high relative humidity (85% r.h.), increased inactivation was observed for K. rhizophila (up to 5·2 log₁₀). Furthermore, a dependency of the antimicrobial effect on the radiation intensity and the inoculation density was identified. Conclusions: Antimicrobial surfaces and coatings based on titanium dioxide have the potential to effectively inactivate vegetative micro‐organisms. Significance and impact of the study: Knowledge about the antimicrobial efficiency of titanium dioxide was gained. This is a prerequisite for industrial applications to improve hygiene, food quality and safety.     

Meta-Analysis of the Reduction of Norovirus and Male-Specific Coliphage Concentrations in Wastewater Treatment Plants

Human norovirus (NoV) is the leading cause of foodborne illness in the United States and Canada. Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents impacting bivalve mollusk-growing areas are potential sources of NoV contamination. We have developed a meta-analysis that evaluates WWTP influent concentrations and log₁₀ reductions of NoV genotype I (NoV GI; in numbers of genome copies per liter [gc/liter]), NoV genotype II (NoV GII; in gc/liter), and male-specific coliphage (MSC; in number of PFU per liter), a proposed viral surrogate for NoV. The meta-analysis included relevant data (2,943 measurements) reported in the scientific literature through September 2013 and previously unpublished surveillance data from the United States and Canada. Model results indicated that the mean WWTP influent concentration of NoV GII (3.9 log₁₀ gc/liter; 95% credible interval [CI], 3.5, 4.3 log₁₀ gc/liter) is larger than the value for NoV GI (1.5 log₁₀ gc/liter; 95% CI, 0.4, 2.4 log₁₀ gc/liter), with large variations occurring from one WWTP to another. For WWTPs with mechanical systems and chlorine disinfection, mean log₁₀ reductions were −2.4 log₁₀ gc/liter (95% CI, −3.9, −1.1 log₁₀ gc/liter) for NoV GI, −2.7 log₁₀ gc/liter (95% CI, −3.6, −1.9 log₁₀ gc/liter) for NoV GII, and −2.9 log₁₀ PFU per liter (95% CI, −3.4, −2.4 log₁₀ PFU per liter) for MSCs. Comparable values for WWTPs with lagoon systems and chlorine disinfection were −1.4 log₁₀ gc/liter (95% CI, −3.3, 0.5 log₁₀ gc/liter) for NoV GI, −1.7 log₁₀ gc/liter (95% CI, −3.1, −0.3 log₁₀ gc/liter) for NoV GII, and −3.6 log₁₀ PFU per liter (95% CI, −4.8, −2.4 PFU per liter) for MSCs. Within WWTPs, correlations exist between mean NoV GI and NoV GII influent concentrations and between the mean log₁₀ reduction in NoV GII and the mean log₁₀ reduction in MSCs.     

Evaluation of sampling tools for environmental sampling of bacterial endospores from porous and nonporous surfaces

Aims: Having and executing a well-defined and validated sampling protocol is critical following a purposeful release of a biological agent for response and recovery activities, for clinical and epidemiological analysis and for forensic purposes. The objective of this study was to address the need for validated sampling and analysis methods called out by the General Accounting Office and others to systematically compare the collection efficiency of various swabs and wipes for collection of bacterial endospores from five different surfaces, both porous and nonporous. This study was also designed to test the collection and extraction solutions used for endospore recovery from swabs and wipes. Methods and Results: Eight collection tools, five swabs and three wipes, were used. Three collection/preservation solutions were evaluated: an ink jet aerosol generator was used to apply Bacillus subtilis endospores to five porous and nonporous surfaces. The collection efficiencies of the swabs and wipes were compared using a statistical multiple comparison analysis. Conclusions: The ScottPure^® wipe had the highest collection efficiency and phosphate-buffered saline (PBST) with 0·3% Tween was the best collection solution of those tested. Significance and Impact of the Study: Validated sampling for potential biological warfare is of significant importance and this study answered some relevant questions.     

Evaluation of hydrogen peroxide efficacy against AZD1222 chimpanzee adenovirus strain in the recombinant COVID-19 vaccine for application in cleaning validation in a pharmaceutical manufacturing industry

This study aimed to evaluate the performance of hydrogen peroxide vapour (HPV) to inactivate the chimpanzee adenovirus AZD1222 vaccine strain used in the production of recombinant COVID-19 vaccine for application in cleaning validation in pharmaceutical industries production areas. Two matrixes were tested: formulated recombinant COVID-19 vaccine (FCV) and active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). The samples were dried on stainless steel and exposed to HPV in an isolator. One biological indicator with population >10⁶ Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores was used to validate the HPV decontamination cycle as standard. HPV exposure resulted in complete virus inactivation in FVC (≥5·03 log₁₀) and API (≥6·40 log₁₀), showing HPV efficacy for reducing chimpanzee adenovirus AZD1222 vaccine strain. However, the optimum concentration and contact time will vary depending on the type of application. Future decontamination studies scaling up the process to the recombinant COVID-19 vaccine manufacturing areas are necessary to evaluate if the HPV will have the same or better virucidal effectivity in each specific production area. In conclusion, HPV showed efficacy for reducing AZD1222 chimpanzee adenovirus strain and can be a good choice for pharmaceutical industries facilities disinfection during recombinant COVID-19 vaccine production.     

Activate to Eradicate: Inhibition of Clostridium difficile Spore Outgrowth by the Synergistic Effects of Osmotic Activation and Nisin

Background

Germination is the irreversible loss of spore-specific properties prior to outgrowth. Because germinating spores become more susceptible to killing by stressors, induction of germination has been proposed as a spore control strategy. However, this strategy is limited by superdormant spores that remain unaffected by germinants. Harsh chemicals and heat activation are effective for stimulating germination of superdormant spores but are impractical for use in a hospital setting, where Clostridium difficile spores present a challenge. Here, we tested whether osmotic activation solutes will provide a mild alternative for stimulation of superdormant C. difficile spores in the presence of germinants as previously demonstrated in several species of Bacillus. In addition, we tested the hypothesis that the limitations of superdormancy can be circumvented with a combined approach using nisin, a FDA-approved safe bacteriocin, to inhibit outgrowth of germinated spores and osmotic activation solutes to enhance outgrowth inhibition by stimulating superdormant spores.

Principal Findings

Exposure to germination solution triggered ∼1 log₁₀ colony forming units (CFU) of spores to germinate, and heat activation increased the spores that germinated to >2.5 log₁₀CFU. Germinating spores, in contrast to dormant spores, became susceptible to inhibition by nisin. The presence of osmotic activation solutes did not stimulate germination of superdormant C. difficile spores exposed to germination solution. But, in the absence of germination solution, osmotic activation solutes enhanced nisin inhibition of superdormant spores to >3.5 log₁₀CFU. The synergistic effects of osmotic activation solutes and nisin were associated with loss of membrane integrity.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that the synergistic effects of osmotic activation and nisin bypass the limitations of germination as a spore control strategy, and might be a novel method to safely and effectively reduce the burden of C.difficile spores on skin and environmental surfaces.     

Inactivation of bacterial opportunistic skin pathogens by nonthermal DC-operated afterglow atmospheric plasma

Aims: Multidrug‐resistant opportunistic pathogens are clinically significant and require the development of new antimicrobial methods. In this study, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus cells were exposed to atmospheric plasma on agar plates and in vitro on porcine skin for the purpose of testing bacterial inactivation. Methods and Results: Microbial inactivation at varying exposure durations was tested using a nonthermal plasma jet generated with a DC voltage from ambient air. The observed reduction in colony forming units was quantified as log₁₀ reductions. Conclusions: Direct plasma exposure significantly inactivated seeded bacterial cells by approx. 6 log₁₀ on agar plates and 2–3 log₁₀ on porcine skin. On agar plates, an indirect ‘bystander’ inactivation outside the plasma delivery area was also observed. The reduced inactivation observed on the skin surface was most likely due to cell protection by the variable surface architecture. Significance and Impact of Study: Atmospheric plasma has potential for clinical application as a disinfectant of patient skin and medically relevant surfaces.     

Influence of the surface temperature of packaging specimens on the inactivation of Bacillus spores by means of gaseous H(2) O(2)

Aims: To determine the influence of condensation as a function of the surface temperature of aseptic packaging, on the inactivation of Bacillus spores [Bacillus subtilis (DSM 347), B. subtilis SA22, Bacillus atrophaeus] having different surface properties by means of vaporized H₂O₂. Methods and Results: The packaging specimens inoculated with Bacillus spores were tempered and subsequently exposed to H₂O₂‐vapour. During the exposure, surface temperature curves were measured and the spore survival was determined. Results showed that decreasing the initial surface temperature of the packaging specimens had a positive effect on the sporicidal activity of H₂O₂‐vapour, where the effect was less pronounced for less hydrophilic spores. The surfaces of spores were characterized by means of the water contact angle. Conclusions: For starting surface temperatures below the dew point temperature of the sterilant gas, the condensation of highly concentrated liquid H₂O₂ on the packaging surface accelerates the killing of the spores, while the inferior wettability of more hydrophobic spores compared to more hydrophilic ones diminishes the effect. Significance and Impact of the Study: Regarding industrial packaging sterilization, a mixed microflora has to be inactivated. Promoting the condensation of H₂O₂ improves in general the killing of different species of spores, however, at various degrees depending on the wettability of spores.