On the reliability of fungal materials used in studies on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ophiocordyceps sinensis</Emphasis>

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (≡Cordyceps sinensis) is one of the best known traditional Chinese medicines, with great benefits to human health and huge economic value. The reliability of fungal materials used in studies of the species is particularly important because contradictory results have been found in various studies in the past decades. Examination of fungal materials specified in reports on O. sinensis showed great variation in both sources and culture conditions of living strains. To test the reliability of the materials used, experiments were carried out to study the effect of culture conditions on the growth of living strains of O. sinensis by using six reliable strains representing the major production regions of the fungus on the Tibetan Plateau. The results showed that O. sinensis is a slow-growing fungus at comparatively low temperature, and that temperature and growth period are crucial factors which can be verified by experiment. Analyses of fungal materials used in 152 papers on O. sinensis from PubMed since 1998 showed that 41 papers lacked detailed information on the fungal materials; 26 used natural products, 11 used artificially cultivated fruit bodies, and 80 used fermentation products from living strains. Of the latter category (using fermentation products), 64 of the papers were found to use unreliable (45) or uncertain (19) strains for fermentation products based on the temperature and growth period for O. sinensis strains verified in this study. Apart from the natural products of O. sinensis, which require scientific identification, a total of at least 116 papers (over three-quarters) used unreliable, uncertain or unspecified materials, including so-called cultivated fruit bodies which were apparently from other species. The reliability of materials or living strains used in studies on O. sinensis is discussed in this paper, and suggestions are made for use of reliable fungal materials in further studies of this fungus.     

The heat shock response and acquired thermotolerance in three strains of cyanobacteria

The heat shock response of three cyanobacterial strains,Anabaena sp. Strain PCC (paris Culture Collection) 7120,Plectonema boryanum Strain PCC 6306, andSynechococcus sp. Strain PCC 7942, was characterized by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.Anabaena produced 33 heat shock proteins,P. boryanum 35 proteins, andSynechoccus 19 proteins. The rapid response to heat shock was consistent for all three strains, although the number of time-dependent proteins varied. All strains developed thermotolerance when first pretreated with a sublethal heat shock and then challenged with a previously lethal temperature. A 30-min 30°C incubation was required between the heat shock and challenge forSynechococcus, but not forAnabaena andP. boryanum. Synechococcus cells required a higher challenge temperature (51° vs. 49°C) than the other two strains to destroy control cells that were not pretreated with a heat shock.     

Improved inhibitor tolerance in xylose-fermenting yeast <Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Spathaspora passalidarum</Emphasis> by mutagenesis and protoplast fusion

The xylose-fermenting yeast Spathaspora passalidarum showed excellent fermentation performance utilizing glucose and xylose under anaerobic conditions. But this yeast is highly sensitive to the inhibitors such as furfural present in the pretreated lignocellulosic biomass. In order to improve the inhibitor tolerance of this yeast, a combination of UV mutagenesis and protoplast fusion was used to construct strains with improved performance. Firstly, UV-induced mutants were screened and selected for improved tolerance towards furfural. The most promised mutant, S. passalidarum M7, produced 50% more final ethanol than the wild-type strain in a synthetic xylose medium containing 2 g/l furfural. However, this mutant was unable to grow in a medium containing 75% liquid fraction of pretreated wheat straw (WSLQ), in which furfural and many other inhibitors were present. Hybrid yeast strains, obtained from fusion of the protoplasts of S. passalidarum M7 and a robust yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATCC 96581, were able to grow in 75% WSLQ and produce around 0.4 g ethanol/g consumed xylose. Among the selected hybrid strains, the hybrid FS22 showed the best fermentation capacity in 75% WSLQ. Phenotypic and partial molecular analysis indicated that S. passalidarum M7 was the dominant parental contributor to the hybrid. In summary, the hybrids are characterized by desired phenotypes derived from both parents, namely the ability to ferment xylose from S. passalidarum and an increased tolerance to inhibitors from S. cerevisiae ATCC 96581.     

Comparative study of Aspergillus mycotoxin production on enriched media and construction material

Isolates of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus from indoor air were compared with a known mycotoxin producer for their capacity to produce mycotoxins on a variety of enrichment media and with growth on indoor substrates such as ceiling tile and wall board. In enrichment media, four of seven isolates of A. flavus produced at least one aflatoxin and both isolates of A. fumigatus produced mycotoxins. The spectrum of mycotoxins and their concentrations varied with the strain and medium. When the mycotoxin-positive strains were grown to a dense concentration on indoor construction and finishing materials such as ceiling tile and wall boards, mycotoxins were not detected in extracts of the materials. Colonization of indoor surfaces by mycotoxin-producing strains of A. flavus and A. fumigatus may not necessarily expose inhabitants to mycotoxins or result in production of mycotoxins. Received 09 February 1999/ Accepted in revised form 28 June 1999     

Optimization of fermentation parameters for production of ethanol from kinnow waste and banana peels by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation

A study was taken up to evaluate the role of some fermentation parameters like inoculum concentration, temperature, incubation period and agitation time on ethanol production from kinnow waste and banana peels by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation using cellulase and co-culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae G and Pachysolen tannophilus MTCC 1077. Steam pretreated kinnow waste and banana peels were used as substrate for ethanol production in the ratio 4:6 (kinnow waste: banana peels). Temperature of 30°C, inoculum size of S. cerevisiae G 6% and (v/v) Pachysolen tannophilus MTCC 1077 4% (v/v), incubation period of 48 h and agitation for the first 24 h were found to be best for ethanol production using the combination of two wastes. The pretreated steam exploded biomass after enzymatic saccharification containing 63 gL⁻¹ reducing sugars was fermented with both hexose and pentose fermenting yeast strains under optimized conditions resulting in ethanol production, yield and fermentation efficiency of 26.84 gL⁻¹, 0.426 gg ⁻¹ and 83.52 % respectively. This study could establish the effective utilization of kinnow waste and banana peels for bioethanol production using optimized fermentation parameters.     

Comparisons of five Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for ethanol production from SPORL‐pretreated lodgepole pine

The performances of five yeast strains under three levels of toxicity were evaluated using hydrolysates from lodgepole pine pretreated by Sulfite Pretreatment to Overcome the Recalcitrance of Lignocelluloses (SPORL). The highest level of toxicity was represented by the whole pretreated biomass slurry, while intermediate toxicity was represented by the hydrolysate with partial loading of pretreatment spent liquor. The zero toxicity was represented using the enzymatic hydrolysate produced from thoroughly washed SPORL lodgepole pine solids. The results indicate that strains D5A and YRH400 can tolerate the whole pretreated biomass slurry to produce 90.1 and 73.5% theoretical ethanol yield. Strains Y1528, YRH403, and FPL450 did not grow in whole hydrolysate cultures and were observed to have lower ethanol productivities than D5A and YRH400 on the hydrolysate with intermediate toxicity. Both YRH400 and YRH403 were genetically engineered for xylose fermentation but were not able to consume xylose efficiently in hydrolysate. © 2014 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 30:1076–1083, 2014     

Regulatory function of sorbose-resistance gene C in sugar transport of Neurospora

Summary A sorbose-resistant double mutant sor ^r A-10/sor ^r C-17 produces larger colonies in sorbose containing test-medium than the respective single mutants; wildtype colonies remain very small. Resistance of the single mutants was shown to be connected with a decreased rate of sorbose-uptake into their conidia; however, sorbose uptake of the double mutant had not been measured. To check, whether the improved performance of the double mutant on test medium is correlated with a further decrease of sorbose uptake in this strain, studies on the uptake of fructose, sorbose and deoxyglucose by ungerminated conidia of the two single mutants, the double mutant and the wildtype were conducted, using C¹⁴-marked sugars, the millipore filter technique, and conidia either untreated or pretreated with 1% sorbose for 4 hours.If sorbose uptake is referred to that of fructose as basis of calculations, as in the earlier studies, the sorbose uptake by cells of the double mutant is smaller than that of both single mutants for conidia not pretreated with sorbose (Fig. 7a). However, for conidia pretreated with sorbose, this correlation does not hold. Rather, cells of the double mutant take up less sorbose than those of the C-mutant, but as much or slightly more than those of the A-mutant (Fig. 7b). If sorbose uptake is referred to that of deoxyglucose for an independent point of reference, cells of the double mutant take up less sorbose than those of the C-mutant, but much more than those of the A-mutant. This holds for untreated and sorbose pretreated cells (Fig. 5 a and b). These data rule out a correlation between colony size and transport defect for at least one of the strains used here, i.e. the C-mutant.The following data suggest a new interpretation: In contrast to the earlier findings with germinated conidia, ungerminated untreated cells of the C-mutant take up much more fructose and sorbose than those of the wildtype (Fig. 3 a and 1a). The uptake of fructose by cells of the C-mutant can not be improved by sorbose pretreatement (Fig. 3 b), but in both wildtype and A-mutant it is increased (Figs. 1b and 2b). Uptake of deoxyglucose was nearly equal for all three strains either untreated or pretreated. Untreated cells of the A-mutant take up as much sorbose as those of the wildtype (Figs. 2 a and 1 a). On pretreatment their sorbose uptake remains nearly constant (Figs. 2b), in contrast to wildtype cells, where it increases drastically and without an increase of fructose uptake by an equivalent amount (Fig. 1b).The new interpretation suggests that gene C is of the regulator type. Mutation of it in the C-strain used here has lead to the simultaneous de-repression of a system for fructose and sorbose uptake. Deoxyglucose uptake is not served by this system. Gene A is a structural gene, harbouring the information for the inducible synthesis of a carrier or permease specifically engaged in sorbose uptake. It is not under the controll of gene C.This interpretation is supported by results on untreated cells of the double mutant. However, fructose uptake of such cells is roughly equal to that of C-mutant cells (Fig. 6a) and sorbose uptake is less (Fig. 5a). Hence, a secondary effect of the A-gene, i.e. on the amount of de-repression of sorbose uptake by mutation in gene C, is indicated.     

Engineering industrial <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</Emphasis> strains for xylose fermentation and comparison for switchgrass conversion

Saccharomyces’ physiology and fermentation-related properties vary broadly among industrial strains used to ferment glucose. How genetic background affects xylose metabolism in recombinant Saccharomyces strains has not been adequately explored. In this study, six industrial strains of varied genetic background were engineered to ferment xylose by stable integration of the xylose reductase, xylitol dehydrogenase, and xylulokinase genes. Aerobic growth rates on xylose were 0.04–0.17 h⁻¹. Fermentation of xylose and glucose/xylose mixtures also showed a wide range of performance between strains. During xylose fermentation, xylose consumption rates were 0.17–0.31 g/l/h, with ethanol yields 0.18–0.27 g/g. Yields of ethanol and the metabolite xylitol were positively correlated, indicating that all of the strains had downstream limitations to xylose metabolism. The better-performing engineered and parental strains were compared for conversion of alkaline pretreated switchgrass to ethanol. The engineered strains produced 13–17% more ethanol than the parental control strains because of their ability to ferment xylose.     

Occurrence and Characterization of the Bacterial Spot Pathogen Xanthomonas euvesicatoria on Pepper in Iran

We report in this study for the first time the occurrence of bacterial spot of pepper in Iran and both phenotypic and genetic characterization of its causal agent, Xanthomonas euvesicatoria. Pepper plants grown in 15 of 30 surveyed private gardens and commercial fields were infected by the pathogen in Marand County, East Azerbaijan Province, north‐western Iran. The obtained strains of X. euvesicatoria had different amylolytic and pectolytic activities compared with those reported for this species elsewhere. Pathogenicity tests showed that strains isolated from diseased pepper are able to infect tomato, in addition to pepper. Host range of the pathogen was assessed on eight annual plant species including crops and weeds by measuring the population dynamics. The host range assessment showed that in addition to pepper and tomato, known hosts of X. euvesicatoria, the Iranian strains were able to colonize a number of new hosts such as nightshade and common bean. In contrast, none of them were able to build up their population on cowpea, eggplant, bindweed and zucchini. All X. euvesicatoria strains obtained in this study were sensitive to copper sulphate and streptomycin at concentrations higher than 20 and 50 mg/l, respectively. Phylogenetic analyses of the strains using the sequences of gyrB and hrpB genes confirmed their species as X. euvesicatoria. Given a direct commercial trade of fresh solanaceous vegetables between Iran and Turkey, it is hypothesized that the pathogen entered north‐western Iran from eastern parts of Turkey through infected plant materials. Finally, the role of prevention – based on the use of healthy planting materials and resistant and/or tolerant plant varieties – to contain the potential disease epidemics is discussed.     

利用纤维二糖差向异构酶制备乳果糖的研究进展

乳果糖是由D-半乳糖和D-果糖两个基团通过β-1,4糖苷键连接而成的还原型二糖;乳果糖口服液具有治疗慢性便秘和肝性脑病的功效,在100多个国家作为常见非处方药(OTC)使用,需求量十分巨大;乳果糖还可以作为益生元改善人体肠道菌群关系。乳果糖的生产依赖化学法,其催化剂对人体有害,下游分离难度大。近年来,纤维二糖差向异构酶被发现能够高效催化乳糖制备乳果糖,该技术绿色环保、步骤简单,具有很强的产业化前景。本文结合自身研究经历对纤维二糖差向异构酶的研发情况进行总结,并综述了乳果糖酶法制备技术的现状。     

Enhanced protection of pathogenic Escherichia coli ingested by a soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans against sanitizer treatments

We employed Caenorhabditis elegans as a model to study the effectiveness of sanitizers in killing pathogenic Escherichia coli strains ingested by free-living nematodes. Adult worms that had fed on six pathogenic E. coli strains (highly persistent in the nematode intestine) were treated with three chemical solutions. In planktonic cells, none of the H₂O₂ and acetic acid treatments influenced the survival of the pathogenic E. coli strains, whereas sodium hypochlorite critically decreased the viability of the strains. Importantly, the survival of the E. coli strains was dramatically increased by persistence in the C. elegans gut under 0.1% sodium hypochlorite, and several strains could survive at a concentration of 0.5%. In addition, all pathogenic E. coli strains in the C. elegans gut survived on the lettuce for 5?days even though they were washed with 0.1% sodium hypochlorite. Taken together, our results indicate that pathogenic E. coli ingested by C. elegans may be protected against washing treatment with commercial sanitizers on raw food materials.     

Selective isolation of bacteria from soil with hydrophobic materials

Bacterial strains having a hydrophobic cell surface have often been considered as degraders of hydrophobic organic pollutants in soil. In this study, bacterial strains were isolated using hydrophobic materials from 12 soil samples, and their cell surface hydrophobicity was determined by evaluating their adherence to n-hexane. Bacterial strains isolated using polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane were more hydrophobic on an average than those isolated with styrene–divinylbenzene (DVB) particles or octadecylsilyl silica gel (ODS) particles. Strains closely related to Burkholderia cepacia could be selectively isolated using the PTFE membrane; those closely related to Ralstonia pickettii, using ODS and DVB particles; and those closely related to B. fungorum, using DVB. These results indicate that bacterial strains having a hydrophobic cell surface or within certain phyla can be selectively isolated from soils using hydrophobic materials, and that this isolation method would be useful for collecting candidates for bioremediation of hydrophobic pollutants.     

Production of single-cell protein from enzymatic hydrolyzate of rice straw

Summary The components of rice straw, pretreated with sodium chlorite, cellulose and hemicellulose were solubilized with culture filtrate of Pellicularia filamentosa or Trichoderma reesei. The ratio of glucose to total sugar in the solution obtained from the cellulose component with the culture filtrate of Pellicularia filamentosa was approximately twice that of Trichoderma reesei.Ten yeast strains (Candida utilis, C. tropicalis, C. guilliermondii, C. parapsilosis, Torulopsis xylinus, Trichosporon cutaneum, Debaryomyces hansenii, Rhodotorula glutinis, Saccharomyces fragilis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) were cultivated as test organisms for single-cell protein (SCP) production on sugar solutions obtained from the straw, cellulose and hemicellulose components, pretreated with the culture filtrate of Pellicularia filamentosa. Sugar consumption, in terms of total sugar and cell yield, of the culture with the sugar solution obtained from pretreated straw were; 70% and 6.8 g/l for Candida tropicalis, 56% and 6.4 g/l for Torulopsis xylinus, 76% and 10.1 g/l for Trichosporon cutaneum, and 74% and 7.6 g/l for Candida guilliermondii. In addition, the highest consumption with respect to total sugar (87%) and the best dry cell yield (15.6 g/l) were observed with the culture of Trichosporon cutaneum using the sugar solution obtained from the hemicellulose component.     

香蕉林土壤可培养放线菌分离、鉴定及其抑菌活性

【背景】香蕉枯萎病是香蕉的顽固性疾病,制约着香蕉产业的发展,因此,筛选出对香蕉枯萎病菌(尖孢镰刀菌古巴专化型4号生理小种,简称Foc4)具有抑制活性的生防菌株具有重要意义。【目的】分离香蕉林土壤样品中放线菌并进行物种的初步鉴定,测定其对包括香蕉枯萎病致病菌的7种病原菌的拮抗活性,获得高活性菌株,以获得解决香蕉枯萎病的生物防治策略。【方法】采集多份广西地区香蕉林土壤样品,采用超声波等手段对其预处理,设置多种特异性培养基从中分离放线菌资源,对获得的放线菌进行基于16SrRNA基因序列的物种鉴定,以7种病原菌为靶标,采用平板对峙法从中筛选抑菌活性菌株,最后采用菌丝生长速率法对Foc4的抑菌率进行测定。【结果】从香蕉林土壤中分离出138株放线菌均为链霉菌,其中5株为潜在新种,分别为X1085、X1052、X2052、X3059和X4046;筛选出具有抑菌活性的菌株77株,阳性率为55.8%。20株对Foc4具有抑制活性,其中4株拮抗效果明显,抑制率大于80%,菌株X4050的抑菌率高达93.76%。【结论】初步明确了香蕉林土壤中可培养放线菌的物种信息,其中部分放线菌为未知物种,活性分析显示一半...     

Silver accumulation and resistance in Pseudomonas stutzeri

Silver (Ag) resistance and accumulation were investigated in Ag-resistant Pseudomonas stutzeri strain AG259 and Ag-sensitive P. stutzeri strain JM303. Both strains exhibited a similar pattern of silver accumulation although to different final concentrations. Energy-dispersive X-ray analyses revealed the association of dense silver deposits with the Ag-resistant strain, but not the Ag-sensitive strain. Toluene permeabilization or incubation of cells at 2°C resulted in decreased Ag accumulation in both strains. This suggests that Ag accumulation may be energy dependent. A decrease in Ag accumulation was observed when cells were pretreated with 2,4-dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP). No decrease was observed using carbonyl cyanide m-chlorphenyl-hydrazone (CCCP). However, it was observed that both 2,4-DNP and CCCP complexed to Ag, making interpretation of accumulation results difficult. Washing of cells incubated in the presence of Ag with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) or hydrochloric acid did not result in decreased Ag accumulation.     

Synthesis of aromatic amino acids from 2G lignocellulosic substrates

Pseudomonas putida is a highly solvent-resistant microorganism and useful chassis for the production of value-added compounds from lignocellulosic residues, in particular aromatic compounds that are made from phenylalanine. The use of these agricultural residues requires a two-step treatment to release the components of the polysaccharides of cellulose and hemicellulose as monomeric sugars, the most abundant monomers being glucose and xylose. Pan-genomic studies have shown that Pseudomonas putida metabolizes glucose through three convergent pathways to yield 6-phosphogluconate and subsequently metabolizes it through the Entner–Doudoroff pathway, but the strains do not degrade xylose. The valorization of both sugars is critical from the point of view of economic viability of the process. For this reason, a P. putida strain was endowed with the ability to metabolize xylose via the xylose isomerase pathway, by incorporating heterologous catabolic genes that convert this C5 sugar into intermediates of the pentose phosphate cycle. In addition, the open reading frame T1E_2822, encoding glucose dehydrogenase, was knocked-out to avoid the production of the dead-end product xylonate. We generated a set of DOT-T1E-derived strains that metabolized glucose and xylose simultaneously in culture medium and that reached high cell density with generation times of around 100 min with glucose and around 300 min with xylose. The strains grew in 2G hydrolysates from diluted acid and steam explosion pretreated corn stover and sugarcane straw. During growth, the strains metabolized > 98% of glucose, > 96% xylose and > 85% acetic acid. In 2G hydrolysates P. putida 5PL, a DOT-T1E derivative strain that carries up to five independent mutations to avoid phenylalanine metabolism, accumulated this amino acid in the medium. We constructed P. putida 5PLΔgcd (xylABE) that produced up to 250 mg l⁻¹ of phenylalanine when grown in 2G pretreated corn stover or sugarcane straw. These results support as a proof of concept the potential of P. putida as a chassis for 2G processes.     

Phenol degradation by immobilized cold-adapted yeast strains of Cryptococcus terreus and Rhodotorula creatinivora

Three strains were isolated from hydrocarbon-polluted alpine habitats and were representatives of Cryptococcus terreus (strain PB4) and Rhodotorula creatinivora (strains PB7, PB12). All three strains synthesized and accumulated glycogen (both acid- and alkali-soluble) and trehalose during growth in complex medium containing glucose as carbon source and in minimal salt medium (MSM) with phenol as sole carbon and energy source. C. terreus strain PB4 showed a lower total accumulation level of storage compounds and a lower extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) production than the two R. creatinivora strains, PB7 and PB12. Biofilm formation and phenol degradation by yeast strains attached to solid carriers of zeolite or filter sand were studied at 10°C. Phenol degradation by immobilized yeast strains was always higher on zeolite compared with filter sand under normal osmotic growth conditions. The transfer of cells immobilized on both solid supports to a high osmotic environment decreased phenol degradation activity by all strains. However, both R. creatinivora PB7 and PB12 strains maintained higher ability to degrade phenol compared with C. terreus strain PB4, which almost completely lost its phenol degradation activity. Moreover, R. creatinivora strain PB7 showed the highest ability to form biofilm on both carriers under high osmotic conditions of cultivation.     

Fermentation of pretreated sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolysate to ethanol by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pachysolen tannophilus</Emphasis>

Sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolysates, pretreated by either over-liming or electrodialysis and, supplemented with nutrient materials, were fermented to ethanol using Pachysolen tannophilus DW06. Compared with detoxification by over-liming, detoxification by electrodialysis decreased the loss of sugar and increased the acetic acid removal, leading to better fermentability. A batch culture with electrodialytically pretreated hydrolysate as substrate was developed giving 21 g ethanol l⁻¹ with a yield of 0.35 g g⁻¹ sugar and productivity of 0.59 g l⁻¹ h⁻¹.     

Gastric colonization withCandida albicans

This is the first report on the isolation ofCryptococcus neoformans from pigeon droppings in China and their serotypes.C. neoformans colonies which produced brown colonies on caffeic acid-cornmeal agar were found in Twenty-five out of thirty-six samples of pigeon droppings. Fifty-one colonies randomly picked from the positive samples were identified asC. neoformans by a commercially available kit for carbon source assimilation test and Christensen's urea agar. Forty (78%) out of the 51 strains were serotyped as A and 11 (22%) as AD. At the same time, seventeen out of nineteen clinical isolates were serotyped as A and 2 as B. There are three findings in our results. One is that onlyC. neoformans var.neoformans strains could be isolated from pigeon droppings, although the varietygattii strains were found in the clinical isolates obtained in the same geographic site in China. The second is that serotype A strains were most frequently seen in natural and clinical materials in the southeast part of China, and serotype AD strains were isolated in pigeon droppings but not in clinical materials. The third is that the coexistence of serotype A and AD cells ofC. neoformans strains in same samples of pigeon droppings were observed.     

Some Observations on the Influence of Salinity on Photosynthetic Activity and Chloride Ion Loss in Several Seaweeds

The photosynthetic rates of Enteromorpha intestinalis, Fucus vesiculosus and Laminaria saccharina from the Baltic Sea were measured in different salinity range of Medium A (with NaHCO₃) and Medium B (without NaHCO₃). Photosynthetic activity in Medium A showed higher values than those in Medium B. The materials pretreated for one day showed a higher O₂ output than those untreated at almost every salinity range. In a chloride loss experiment the pretreated thalli of Porphyra umbilicalis, Fucus vesiculosus and Laminaria digitata were placed for a three minute period in distilled water. The excreted chloride ion content showed a higher value in sublittoral species after hypotonic and hypertonic treatment than in intertidal species.