内耳发育研究的新进展——神经营养素及其受体的调控和

近年来,对神经营养因子尤其是神经营养素及其功能性受体－－酪氨酸激酶受体ＴｒｋＡ、ＴｒｋＢ、ＴｒｋＣ的研究进展迅速,这些因子能够促进神经元的存活、生长、分化以及损伤后的修复,应用免疫组化、原位杂交和基因敲除小鼠模型方法研究这些因子及其受体在内耳发育中的调控作用,可以在细胞、分子水平上提供有关内耳发育机制的新认识,外源性神经营养素可能在临床治疗失聪上具有潜在的应用价值。     

雌激素及其受体在内耳发育和功能上的作用

雌激素在生殖系统、认知记忆系统、骨骼和神经的发育及其功能维持等多种生理功能中扮演了重要的作用。近年来,在内耳发育及其功能研究过程中,许多学者发现在听力和平衡系统功能上的性别差异可能归根因于不同性别的雌激素水平差异。这些研究表明,雌激素及其受体在内耳发育、听力和平衡系统功能维持上也具有重要作用。该文用一个新的视角聚焦于雌激素及其受体在内耳发育和功能上的研究进展。该综述能为进一步研究雌激素在听力和平衡系统中的作用机制及相关疾病的临床治疗提供参考。     

大鼠脑内小胶质细胞神经营养素受体的表达

神经营养素在神经元的生长、发育中的重要作用已有许多报道,但对神经胶质细胞的作用及其作用机制却知之甚少。在本研究中,我们着重对体外培养的小胶质细胞所表达的神经营养素受体进行了分析。首先,利用酚-氯仿法提取了总的细胞RNA,然后通过特异引物采用反转录多聚酶链式反应(RT-PCR)扩增得到cDNA,再用琼脂糖凝胶电泳、DNA印迹法和免疫细胞化学染色法对神经营养素受体(Trks)进行了测定。实验结果表明:体外培养的大鼠脑小胶质细胞表达高亲和力神经营养素受体TrkA、TrkB和TrkC,以及低亲和力NGF受体LNGFRp75。因此推断,神经营养素对小胶质细胞的生理及调节作用可能是通过它们相应的受体(Trks和LNGFRp75)介导的。这些结果为进一步研究神经营养素在神经系统中的作用机制及小胶质细胞的生理功能提供了资料。     

Sox2在内耳发育中的作用

转录因子Sox2是Sox基因家族的成员之一,由于它在早期胚胎发生、神经分化和内耳发育等多种重要的发育事件中都起着关键的作用,从而引起了越来越广泛的关注。哺乳动物的内耳主要由6个形态上和功能上不同的感觉区组成,这些区域对声音和前庭信息的传导是必需的,在这些区域的发育过程中,Sox2基因是内耳细胞早期发育所必需的基因。该文就Sox2在内耳发育中的作用作一综述。     

腺病毒介导的NT3基因转染对噪音损伤的耳蜗螺旋神经节细胞的保护作用

神经营养素 3(neurotrophin 3,NT3)作为螺旋神经节细胞特异的营养因子 ,可有效地支持内耳传入神经元的存活 ,因此有望成为治疗因其退变而引起的感音性神经性耳聋的有效因子。实验采用腺病毒介导lacZ基因 ,检测了外源基因在豚鼠内耳中的长期表达。用噪音制备了豚鼠耳聋模型 ,在噪音损伤后第 7天 ,通过圆窗膜注入 1× 10 8重组腺病毒。注入神经营养素 3重组腺 (Ad NT3)的组为实验组 ,注入Ad lacZ的为对照组。 4周后 ,经NT3抗体免疫细胞化学染色可见 ,在注入Ad NT3病毒的实验组中 ,在内耳多种细胞中有明显的NT3蛋白的表达。HE染色显示 ,注射Ad lacZ组的豚鼠耳蜗螺旋神经节细胞明显退变 ,螺旋神经节内细胞间隙拉大 ,细胞密度明显低于注射Ad NT3实验组动物 (P <0 .0 1)。这一结果说明 ,腺病毒介导的NT3基因可长期表达于内耳中 ,并且可在噪音引起毛细胞死亡后有效地抑制螺旋神经节细胞的退变。     

Galanin(甘丙肽)及其受体在成年小鼠脑内神经新生部位的表达及对神经干细胞分化的作用

Galanin(甘丙肽)是一种在中枢神经系统中广泛分布的神经肽,功能涉及摄食、睡眠和觉醒、疼痛、认知和生殖等各方面.我们在成年小鼠脑的神经细胞新生部位如SVZ,DG和RMS发现有galanin及其受体的mRNA表达,同时在SVZ来源的神经干细胞中也检测到有galanin及其受体的表达.细胞实验中,在分化后特定时间段GALKO小鼠来源的神经干细胞产生神经突的细胞比例及神经突的长度明显小于正常小鼠来源的神经干细胞.而加入galanin或受体激动剂GAL2-11后.该神经干细胞则在产生神经突的细胞比例及神经突的长度都明显上升.受体拮抗剂M35的添加可减弱galanin或GAL2-11所产生的作用.这些结果表明galanin及其受体与神经干细胞的分化及神经突的生长有着密切的联系,并可能参与了神经系统的发育.     

GDNF家族成员及其受体的研究进展

胶质细胞源性神经营养因子(GDNF)家族是一类结构上属于转化生长因子-β（TGF-β）超家族的神经营养因子,目前包括GDNF,neurturin(NTN)和persephin(PSP)三种因子,它们在体内有着广泛的作用.近年来发现GDNF和NTN的受体均为多组分结构,由不同的糖基磷脂酰肌醇（GPI）蛋白和共享的跨膜酪氨酸激酶受体Ret蛋白构成.有关这一家族的因子及其受体的研究正在不断深入.     

睫状体神经营养因子

睫状体神经营养因子是一种多功能的细胞因子,它在体外和体内对中枢神经系和周围神经系的运动神经元、感觉神经元、交感神经元、副交感神经元的发育、存活、分化、损伤后修复等方面都起重要作用。本介绍了睫状体神经营养因子及其受体的结构和功能、它们的基因以及用基因工作生产的人睫状体神经营养因子及其临床应用前景。     

烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体及其神经保护作用

新近研究证实,神经元烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体(nAChR)激动后可起到一定的神经保护作用.目前,一些作用于烟碱受体的激动剂已被作为治疗神经退行性疾病如阿尔茨海默病(AD)和帕金森病(PD)的候选药物,但是关于烟碱受体激动后如何发挥神经保护作用及其潜在的分子机制还不清楚,其中有与Ca2+相关的信号转导假说以及神经营养因子等假说.本文就烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体及其神经保护作用的研究进展予以综述.     

P75^NTR的研究进展

在个体发育过程中,不同的神经元群体都需要神经营养因子(NTFs)来促进其存活和分化。随着对神经系统疾病认识的深入,NTFs及其相关受体的作用也越来越受到人们的关注。现在已经知道,在神经元细胞膜上存在有两大类NTFs受体,一类是能够选择性结合NTFs的高亲和力受体(HNGFR),包括TrK A、B、C,它们隶属于TrK酪氨酸激酶家族,在与配基结合方面,TrKA与神经生长因子(NGF)、TrKB与脑源性神经生长因子(BDNF)或神经营养因子4/5(NT-4/5)、TrKC与神经营养因子3(NT-3)的选择性结合。另一类为低亲和力受体     

Effects of neurotrophin and neurotrophin receptor disruption on the afferent inner ear innervation

Two neurotrophins and their two receptors appear to regulate the survival of vestibular and cochlear neurons in the developing ear. Mice lacking either brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) or its associated receptor, Trk B, show a severe reduction in the number of vestibular neurons and a loss of all innervation to the semicircular canals. Mice lacking NT-3 or its receptor, Trk C, show a severe reduction of spiral neurons in the basal turn of the cochlea. Mice lacking both BDNF and NT-3 or Trk B and Trk C, reportedly lose all innervation to the inner ear. These two neurotrophins and their associated receptors are necessary for the normal afferent innervation of the inner ear.     

Developing vestibular ganglion neurons switch trophic sensitivity from BDNF to GDNF after target innervation

Recent evidence showing a distinctive cell loss in vestibular and cochlear ganglia of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) versus neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) null mutant mice demonstrates that these neurotrophins play a critical role in inner ear development. In this study, biological functions of BDNF and NT-3 in the chick vestibular and cochlear ganglion development was assessed in vitro and compared to those of other neurotrophic factors. The embryonic day (E)8-12 vestibular ganglion neurons showed an extensive outgrowth in response to BDNF with less outgrowth to NT-3. In contrast, NT-3 had stronger neurotrophic effects on the E12 cochlear ganglion neurons compared to BDNF. These results support previous evidence that neurotrophins play important roles in the vestibular and cochlear ganglion neuron development. However, the responsiveness to the neurotrophins declined and became undetectable by E16. Unexpectedly, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) promoted neurite outgrowth from vestibular ganglia at E12-16, later than the stages at which BDNF had neurotrophic effects. The time of switching sensitivity of the vestibular ganglion neurons from BDNF to GDNF correlated with the time of completion of synaptogenesis on their peripheral and central targets. Furthermore, a factor released from E12 inner ears exerted neurotrophic effects on late-stage vestibular ganglion neurons that were not responsive to the E4 otocyst-derived factor. These results raise the possibility that the vestibular ganglion neurons become responsive to GDNF upon target innervation and that the changes in sensitivity are regulated by changes in available factors released from their peripheral targets, the inner ear epithelia.     

Disorganized Innervation and Neuronal Loss in the Inner Ear of Slitrk6-Deficient Mice

Slitrks are type I transmembrane proteins that share conserved leucine-rich repeat domains similar to those in the secreted axonal guidance molecule Slit. They also show similarities to Ntrk neurotrophin receptors in their carboxy-termini, sharing a conserved tyrosine residue. Among 6 Slitrk family genes in mammals, Slitrk6 has a unique expression pattern, with strong expression in the sensory epithelia of the inner ear. We generated Slitrk6-knockout mice and investigated the development of their auditory and vestibular sensory organs. Slitrk6-deficient mice showed pronounced reduction in the cochlear innervation. In the vestibule, the innervation to the posterior crista was often lost, reduced, or sometimes misguided. These defects were accompanied by the loss of neurons in the spiral and vestibular ganglia. Cochlear sensory epithelia from Slitrk6-knockout mice have reduced ability in promoting neurite outgrowth of spiral ganglion neurons. Indeed the Slitrk6-deficient inner ear showed a mild but significant decrease in the expression of Bdnf and Ntf3, both of which are essential for the innervation and survival of sensory neurons. In addition, the expression of Ntrk receptors, including their phosphorylated forms was decreased in Slitrk6-knockout cochlea. These results suggest that Slitrk6 promotes innervation and survival of inner ear sensory neurons by regulating the expression of trophic and/or tropic factors including neurotrophins from sensory epithelia.     

Effect of semax and its C-terminal peptide PGP on expression of neurotrophins and their receptors in rat brain during incomplete global ischemia

Neurotrophins regulate key functions of nervous tissue cells. Analysis of neurotrophin mRNA expression is an appropriate tool to assess therapeutic efficiency of antistroke drugs. We have analyzed the effect of synthetic peptide semax and its C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide on mRNA expression of neurotrophins Ngf, Bdnf, and Nt-3 and their receptors TrkA, TrkB, TrkC, and p75 in rat frontal cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum after bilateral common carotid artery occlusion. The animals were decapitated at 30 min and 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 h after the operation. The mRNA expression of neurotrophins and their receptors was assessed by relative quantification using real-time RT-PCR. Our results demonstrated that ischemia caused a significant decrease in gene expression in the hippocampus. Semax and PGP treatment affected the expression of neurotrophins and their receptors predominantly in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of the ischemized animals. In the frontal cortex, Semax treatment resulted in a decrease of mRNA level of neurotrophin receptors, while PGP treatment increased the level of these mRNA. Maximal neuroprotective effect of both peptides was observed in the hippocampus 12 h after occlusion. A decrease of gene expression of neurotrophins and their receptors caused by the occlusion was overcome by Semax and PGP. These results clarify the mechanism of Semax action and reveal certain features of mRNA expression of neurotrophins and their receptors under experimental conditions.     

Structure–function relationships in the neurotrophin family

The study of structure–function relationships in the neurotrophin family has in recent years increased our understanding of several important aspects of neurotrophin function. Site-directed mutagenesis studies have localized amino acid residues important for binding to the low-affinity (p75^LNGFR), as well as to the members of the Trk family of tyrosine kinase receptors. A cluster of positively charged residues has been shown to form a surface for binding to p75^LNGFR in all four neurotrophins. Differences in the spatial distribution of these charges among the different neurotrophins may explain some of their distinct binding properties. Elimination of these positive charges drastically reduces binding to P75^LNGFR but not to the Trk family members, and it does not impair the biological properties of the neurotrophins in vitro, arguing that binding to and activation of Trk receptors is sufficient to mediate the biological responses of neurotrophins. In contrast. the binding sites to Trk receptors appear to be formed by discontinuous stretches of amino acid residues distributed throughout the primary sequence of the molecule. These include the N-terminus, some of the variable loop regions and a β-strand. Despite their apparent distribution, when viewed in the three-dimensional structure of NGF, these residues appear grouped on one side of the neurotrophin dimer, delineating a continuous surface extending approximately parallel to the twofold symmetry axis of the molecule. Two symmetrical surfaces are formed along the axis of the neurotrophin dimer providing a model for ligand-mediated receptor dimerization. In the neurotrophin family, co-evolution of cognate ligands and Trk receptors has developed specific contacts through different residues in the same variable regions of the neurotrophins. Thus, binding specificity is determined by the cooperation of distinct active and inhibitory binding determinants that restrict ligand-receptors interactions. Binding determinants to the Trk receptors can be manipulated independently in a rational fashion to create neurotrophin analogues with novel ligand-binding properties. In this way, second-generation chimeric neurotrophins with multiple specificities (pan-neurotrophins) have been engineered which may have valuable applications in the treatment of neurodegeneration and nerve damage. 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Analysis of Netrin 1 receptors during inner ear development

Netrin 1 plays key roles in axon guidance and neuronal migration during central nervous system (CNS) development. Outside the CNS, Netrin 1 has been shown to be involved in epithelial morphogenesis of various organs. We have shown that Netrin 1 is essential for inner ear semicircular duct formation, but the involvement of Netrin 1 receptors in this process has remained unknown. Netrin 1 receptors include members of the Deleted in colorectal cancer (Dcc), Unc5-homologue and integrin families. Here we have analysed the expression of these receptor genes during inner ear development and verified the inner ear phenotypes of several receptor mutant mice. Special interest was directed to receptors that could cooperate with Netrin 1 during semicircular duct formation. We show that Neogenin (Neo1), Unc5c as well as integrin b1 (Itgb1) are expressed in periotic mesenchyme, while Dcc, Unc5b, Unc5c, Itga3, Itga6 and Itgb1 are expressed in different parts of the otic epithelium. In spite of the broad and strong expression of several receptors in ear region, none of the analysed receptor mutant embryos showed any defects in inner ear development.     

The role of neurotrophins in the developing nervous system

Neurotrophins were originally identified by their ability to promote the survival of developing neurons. However, recent work on these proteins indicates that they may also influence the proliferation and differentiation of neuron progenitor cells and regular several differentiated traits of neurons throughout life. Moreover, the effects of neurotrophins on survival have turned out to be more complex than originally thought. Some neurons switch their survival requirements from one set of neurotrophins to another during development, and several neurotrophins may be involved in regulating the survival of a population of neurons at any one time. Much of our understanding of the developmental physiology of neurotrophins has come from studying neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Because these neurons and their progenitors are segregated into anatomically discrete sites, it has been possible to obtain these cell for in vitro experimental studies from the earliest stage of their development. The recent generation of mice having null mutations in the neurotrophin and neurotrophin receptor genes has opened up an unparalleled opportunity to assess the physiological relevance of the wealth of data obtained from these in vitro studies. Here I provide a chronological account of the effects of members of the NGF family of neurotrophins on cells of the neural lineage with special reference to the peripheral nervous system. 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.