Shifting sows: longitudinal changes in the periparturient faecal microbiota of primiparous and multiparous sows

Knowledge of periparturient longitudinal changes in sow microbiota composition is necessary to fully understand her role in the development of the piglet microbiota, but also to improve gut health and performance of the sow in lactation. Primiparous sows face the challenge of partitioning nutrients to support maternal growth in addition to supporting foetal growth and the demands of lactation. Additional metabolic stress present during the periparturient period may induce changes in the microbiota profile between primiparous and multiparous sows. Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, the study aimed to characterise the longitudinal changes in the periparturient microbiota and identify differences within the sow microbiota profile associated with parity. Faecal samples from primiparous (n = 13) and multiparous (n = 16) sows were collected at four different time points (day - 6, - 1, 3 and 8) in relation to farrowing (day 0). Microbiota richness was lowest on day 3 and - 1 of the periparturient period (P < 0.05). Microbiota community composition, assessed by weighted and unweighted UniFrac distances, demonstrated longitudinal changes, with day 3 samples clustering away from all other sampling time points (P < 0.05). The relative abundance of several genera segregated gestation from lactation samples including Roseburia, Prevotella 1, Prevotella 2, Christensenellaceae R-7 group, Ruminococcaceae UCG-002 and Ruminococcaceae UCG-010 (P < 0.01). Furthermore, day 3 was characterised by a significant increase in the relative abundance of Escherichia/Shigella, Fusobacterium and Bacteroides, and a decrease in Alloprevotella, Prevotellaceae UCG-003 and Ruminococcus 1 (P < 0.001). Primiparous sows had overall lower periparturient microbiota diversity (P < 0.01) and there was a significant interaction between parity and sampling time point, with primiparous sows having lower microbiota richness on day - 6 (P < 0.001). There was a significant interaction between sow parity and sampling time point on microbiota composition on day - 6 and - 1 (unweighted UniFrac distances; ≤ 0.01) and day 8 (weighted and unweighted UniFrac distances; P < 0.05). Whilst no significant interactions between sow parity and sampling day were observed for genera relative abundances, multiparous sows had a significantly higher relative abundance of Bacteroidetes dgA-11 gut group and Prevotellaceae UCG-004 (P < 0.01). This study demonstrates that the sow microbiota undergoes longitudinal changes, which are collectively related to periparturient changes in the sow environment, diet and physiological changes to support foetal growth, delivery and the onset of lactation, but also sow parity.     

Evaluation of an on-farm method to assess colostrum IgG content in sows

The objective of this work was to investigate the evaluation of swine colostrum immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentration using the Brix refractometer. Colostrum samples were collected across all teats, from 124 sows of mixed parities. According to sampling time, three categories were created: samples available from 9 h before the onset of parturition until the first piglet was born were classified as before farrowing; samples collected after the first birth until 4 h later were classified as during farrowing; and finally samples collected from this point until 14 h after parturition, were classified as after farrowing. Samples were drawn and divided into three portions; one was immediately analyzed, a second was refrigerated and the third was frozen at −20°C. Fresh and refrigerated colostrum samples were analyzed at the farm with a Brix refractometer. IgG content of frozen samples was analyzed using a Brix refractometer, with a subset of 42 samples also tested with a commercially available radial immune diffusion (RID) kit. The Brix percentage ranged from 18.3% to 33.2%. Brix percentage repeatability, assessed by the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), was very strong (fresh ICC=0.98, refrigerated ICC=0.88 and frozen ICC=0.99). One-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed that storage temperature did not affect BRIX percentage of colostrum IgG (P>0.05). ANOVA results show a significant effect of sampling time on colostrum immunoglobulin concentration, measured with both Brix and RID (Brix: P<0.003; RID: P<0.05). Immunoglobulin G concentration measured by RID ranged from 13.27 to 35.08 mg/ml. Pearson correlation coefficient revealed that Brix percentage was positively correlated (r=0.56, P<0.001) with RID results (regression equation: RID=1.01 (±0.2) Brix −1.94 (±5.66); R²=0.31). The results of this study indicate that the Brix refractometer provides a simple, fast and inexpensive estimation of colostrum IgG in sows.     

Insulin-like growth factor-I, GH, insulin and glucagon concentrations in bovine colostrum and in plasma of dairy cows and neonatal calves around parturition

1. The IGF-I concentrations in colostrum on days 1 and 2 after parturition were higher than those in cow and neonate plasma. 2. The modest increase in GH concentrations in cow plasma around parturition would not be enough to stimulate IGF-I release by tissues. 3. The concentrations of insulin, GH and glucagon in colostrum were substantially lower than those in plasma.     

Effects of bovine colostrum supplementation on serum IGF-I, IgG, hormone, and saliva IgA during training

Mero, Antti, Heidi Miikkulainen, Jarmo Riski, RaimoPakkanen, Jouni Aalto, and Timo Takala. Effects of bovinecolostrum supplementation on serum IGF-I, IgG, hormone, and saliva IgAduring training. J. Appl. Physiol.83(4): 1144-1151, 1997.The purpose of this study was to examinethe effects of bovine colostrum supplementation (Bioenervi) on seruminsulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), immunoglobulin G, hormone, andamino acid and saliva immunoglobulin A concentrations during a strengthand speed training period. Nine male sprinters and jumpersunderwent three randomized experimental training treatments of 8 daysseparated by 13 days. The only difference in the treatments was thedrink of 125 ml consumed per day. Posttraining increases were noticedfor serum IGF-I in the 25-ml Bioenervi treatment (125 ml contained 25 ml Bioenervi) and especially in the 125-ml Bioenervi treatment (125 mlcontained 125 ml Bioenervi) compared with the placebo (normal milkwhey) treatment (P < 0.05). The change in IGF-I concentration during the 8-day periods correlated positively with the change in insulin concentration during the sameperiods with 25-ml Bioenervi treatment(r = 0.68;P = 0.045) and with 125-ml Bioenervitreatment (r = 0.69;P = 0.038). Serum immunoglobulin G,hormone, and amino acid and saliva immunoglobulin A responses weresimilar during the three treatments. It appears that a bovine colostrumsupplement (Bioenervi) may increase serum IGF-I concentration inathletes during strength and speed training.

     

Peripartum Ca and P homeostasis in multiparous sows fed adequate or excess dietary Ca

The recent increased prevalence of uterine prolapses in sows around parturition has led to inferences that the prolapses may be associated with hypocalcemia. However, limited data are available to support that hypocalcemia occurs in sows. Hypocalcemia in dairy cows is associated with feeding excess dietary Ca during late gestation. The excess Ca is assumed to suppress homeostatic mechanisms critical to maintain serum Ca concentrations as the Ca demand increases during the early stages of lactation. In this experiment, sows were fed diets with excess Ca during late gestation and early lactation to assess the potential development of hypocalcemia in the peripartum period. Twelve crossbred (Large White × Landrace) multiparous gestating sows were fed a control diet (CON), 0.65% Ca to 0.38% standardized total tract digestible P (STTD P) and 0.67% Ca to 0.38% STTD P in gestation and lactation diets, respectively) or a high Ca diet (HCa, 1.75% Ca to 0.46% STTD P and 1.75% Ca to 0.45% STTD P in gestation and lactation diets, respectively). The diets were fed from gestation day 86 þ ± 1 until the end of lactation (27 þ ± 2 days period). On day 112 of gestation, indwelling venous catheters were placed in each sow. Blood samples were collected at 15-min intervals within four designated times (0700, 1000, 1300 and 1700 h) on gestation day 113 and lactation days 1, 3 and 5. Venous blood pH, gases (pO₂, pCO₂ and HCO₃⁻), electrolytes (K⁺, Na⁺ and Cl⁻), ionized Ca (iCa), metabolites (glucose and lactate), plasma total Ca (tCa), and P were analyzed. Overall, sows fed HCa diet had greater (P < 0.001) concentrations of blood iCa and plasma tCa than sows fed CON diets. No clinical signs of Ca metabolism disorders were observed. Unexpectedly, concentrations of plasma P in sows fed HCa diets were lower (P < 0.001) than in sows fed CON diets. Plasma P tended to decrease (P = 0.057) as day of lactation increased. Differences between dietary treatments for blood pH, gases, electrolytes and metabolites were not detected (P > 0.05). No evidence for hypocalcemia was detected in peripartum sows fed CON or HCa diets. These data imply that excess Ca in late gestation diets did not result in hypocalcemia during the peripartum period. Future experiments should focus on factors other than hypocalcemia to identify causes of uterine prolapses in sows.     

Total and free plasma concentrations of progesterone, cortisol and oestradiol-17 beta during pregnancy, parturition and early lactation in sows

The total (bound plus free) concentrations of progesterone, 20 alpha-dihydroprogesterone, oestradiol-17 beta and cortisol were determined in the plasma of sows at three stages during pregnancy and more intensively from 5 days pre-partum to 5 days post-partum. The free fractions of progesterone, oestradiol-17 beta and cortisol were measured in the same samples by a rate dialysis method. Up to day 110 of gestation, the amounts of free hormone in plasma did not fluctuate independently of their total concentrations. During farrowing, the total and free concentrations of progesterone and cortisol varied independently of each other, whereas total and free oestradiol-17 beta declined simultaneously. The initiation of parturition was associated with a decrease in circulating total progesterone, and was accentuated by a decrease in the free fraction (P less than 0.005) so that its active free concentration was only 20% of its day 1 pre-partum value. Total and free cortisol concentrations rose rapidly during labour so that at 12-18 h after birth of the first piglet 30% of that cortisol in maternal plasma was free hormone.     

Peripheral plasma progesterone and utero-ovarian prostaglandin F concentrations in the cow around parturition

The concentration of prostaglandin F in utero-ovarian venous plasma and progesterone in jugular venous plasma were determined by radioimmunoassay in 3 cows over the last 2–3 weeks of gestation. Utero-ovarian prostaglandin F concentrations did not show any consistent pattern in two of three cows until 48–72 h before term when the levels rose sharply from 1 ng/ml to a maximum 4–9 ng/ml during labour. The concentration of progesterone in jugular venous plasma tended to fall gradually over the last 20 days of gestation with a further fall occurring 48-36 h before delivery.In two other cows at around 240 days of gestation the concentration of plasma progesterone in ovarian venous plasma was 50 to 150 times the concentration of progesterone in uterine or jugular venous plasma. It is concluded from these results that the ovaries are the major source of progesterone in cows during late pregnancy. The findings also suggest that prostaglandin F may be the luteolytic factor responsible for the sharp decline in plasma progesterone concentrations over the last 48-36 h preceding parturition.     

Insulin and glucose concentration changes in newborn piglets after suckling the colostrum from insulin administered sows

Immunoreactive insulin (IRI) concentration in sows colostrum has been previously proven to be much higher than that in blood. The experiment was carried out to show the influence of endogenous and added insulin in sows colostrum on insulinaemia and glycaemia of newborn piglets. In colostrum collected from 3 control and 5 experimental sows before loading, basal insulin concentration were 1.595 and 1.365 nM-1, respectively, and calculated for all 8 sows together were 1.451 nM-1 (SEM +/- 0.289). Basal plasma insulin concentrations calculated for 68 healthy piglets before sucking were little differentiated (mean 0.318 +/- 0.044 nM l-1), whereas glucose initial concentrations for those piglets (mean 3.581 +/- 0.275 nM l-1) were highly differentiated. Intramuscular loading of 5 experimental sows with insulin (80 I.U. per animal) caused an increase in the concentration of insulin in colostrum from 1.365 to 3.449 nM l-1 (0.01, P less than 0.02). The mean insulin level (0.313 +/- 0.04 nM l-1) in experimental piglets blood plasma (n = 42) increased significantly to 1.234 +/- 0.07 (P less than 0.001) after suckling by sows loaded with exogenous insulin. Glycaemic response of those two piglets litters was poor but showed a statistically significant increase (P less than 0.001). The glucose concentrations in blood plasma samples of the other three litters did not changes after sucking. The experiment excluded the hypothesis that high level of insulin in colostrum could be the cause of hypoglycaemia in healthy piglets after sucking.     

Changes of insulin concentration in colostrum and milk of women, cows and sows

The method of whey extraction in order to determine insulin concentration in colostrum and milk was worked out, checked and applied. The observation of insulin changes showed high and similar insulin concentration in whey samples of women, cows and sows colostrum on the day before and in the day of parturition. One day after delivery hormone concentration maintained high in case of women and sows but in cow colostrum it decreased to 1/12 comparing to the level on the parturition day. During the postpartum following days it was decreasing gradually in the colostrum of all three examined species; the process was very fast in cows, slower in women and the slowest in sows.     

Pain and discomfort caused by parturition in cows and sows

This review focuses on parturition as a painful process in cows and sows. Firstly, the different stages of parturition associated to the origin and transmission of pain stimuli are described. Hypoalgesia during the late pregnancy and parturition has been shown, perhaps as an endogenous defence against the pain of parturition. The principal factors affecting parturition pain are parity and dystocia, which are more likely in cases of long parturition, feto-pelvic disproportion and/or foetal malpresentation. The main consequences of pain caused by parturition are reviewed; parturition is an intrinsically risky process for both mother and young and can cause a stress response, health problems and maternal mortality, in addition to decreased food intake and production. The assessment of parturition pain has tended to use one of three approaches: measures of general indices, physiological and behavioural indicators. Finally, the impact of analgesia after parturition in cows and sows is reviewed. It is concluded that pain caused by parturition in animals deserves more research in order to optimize the parturition process and reduce its negative consequences on health, welfare and productivity.     

Peripheral plasma progesterone and utero-ovarian prostaglandin F concentrations in the cow around parturition.

The concentration of prostaglandin F in utero-ovarian venous plasma and proseterone in jugular venous plasma were determined by radioimmunoassay in 3 cows over the last 2-3 weeks of gestation. Utero-ovarian prostaglandin F concentrations did not show and consistent pattern in two hours of three cows until 48-72 h before term when the levels rose sharply from 1 ng/ml to maximum 4-9 ng/ml during labour. The concentration of prosterone in jugular venous plasma tended to fall gradually over the last 20 days of gestation with a further fall occurring 48-36 h before delivery.     

Changes in plasma levels of estrone sulfate and estrone in the pregnant ewe around parturition

A method for the extraction, separation and measurement of estrone sulfate and estrone in a single plasma sample is described. The method has been applied to the determination of plasma levels of estrone sulfate and estrone in pregnant ewes over the period 60 hr before to 20 hr after parturition. The study revealed that the plasma levels of estrone sulfate and estrone began to increase about 40 hr before parturition, reached a peak at parturition and then declined rapidly to levels below the sensitivity of the method by 15 hr postpartum. The peak level of estrone sulfate recorded at parturition was 103 pmol (38 ng) per ml of plasma which was approximately 30 times greater than the corresponding peak level of estrone.     

Myometrial activity around estrus in sows: spontaneous activity and effects of estrogens,cloprostenol, seminal plasma and clenbuterol

A new, nonsurgical, open-end catheter technique was used to study spontaneous uterine activity around estrus in sows, and the effects of estrogens, seminal plasma, cloprostenol, and clenbuterol on uterine activity. In the first experiment, uterine activity was studied in 14 multiparous, cyclic sows, during one or more estrous cycles, from day -4 to day 4 of the cycle (day 0: first day of standing estrus). From a few days before estrus until estrus, the percentage of sows showing any uterine contractions increased from 55 to 100%, and frequency and mean amplitude of uterine contractions for these sows increased from 15 to 22/h, and from 20 to 40 mmHg on average. After estrus, uterine activity decreased. There were large differences between sows in uterine activity, which were consistent over the days of the cycle. In the second experiment, 11.5 microg of estrogens in 100 ml saline (n = 17), 100 ml seminal plasma (n = 5), 1 mg cloprostenol in 100 ml saline (n = 10), 0.30 mg clenbuterol in 100 ml saline (n = 11), or 100 ml saline (n = 5) was infused IU, after recording spontaneous activity. Infusion with saline or seminal plasma did not affect uterine activity. Estrogens increased frequency of contractions. Cloprostenol increased both frequency and amplitude of contractions. Clenbuterol reduced both frequency and amplitude of contractions. In conclusion, this study shows that spontaneous uterine activity in sows is increased around estrus, and it supports the role of estrogens in boar seminal plasma in affecting uterine activity around mating. Further, this study has yielded possible tools to study the relation between uterine activity and sperm transport.     

Effect of feeding level on progesterone concentration in early pregnant multiparous sows

The effect of three feeding regimens on progesterone level was tested during early pregnancy in multiparous sows. A total of eighteen sows in their eighth parity (8.1 +/- 2.8, mean +/- S.D.) were used. During lactation the sows were fed to appetite and after weaning they received 4 kg (52 MJ) a commercial feed per day. Following ovulation, sows were allocated to one of three treatment groups and fed 2 kg/day (low feeding, LLL) or 4 kg/day (high feeding, HHH) throughout the trial or 2 kg/day for 11 days, 4 kg/day for 10 days, and 2 kg/day for the remaining days of the study (modified feeding, LHL). Blood for progesterone and cortisol analyses was collected daily throughout the study, and for luteinizing hormone (LH) assay for 12 h at 15 min intervals on days 14 and 21 of pregnancy. An adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge test was performed on all sows day 28 of pregnancy. Dietary treatment did not significantly affect hormonal parameters. However, progesterone concentration tended to be lower (P = 0.08) in the HHH group than in the LLL group. In the LHL group venous progesterone concentration seemed to fluctuate. No effects of feeding were observed on progesterone concentration in allantoic fluid on day 35 of pregnancy. Venous cortisol level was significantly higher (P < 0.05) during proestrus and oestrus in all groups and there was no significant difference between groups in response to ACTH challenge. The mean amplitude of LH pulses decreased significantly (P < 0.01) from days 14 to 21 of pregnancy in all groups. In addition, an interaction was found between feeding level and baseline LH concentration and also between feeding level and mean LH concentration. Embryonic recovery was highest in the LLL (69%), lowest in the HHH (45%) and moderate in the LHL (55%) group. Neither high feeding nor modified feeding provided any benefits for reproductive performance in multiparous sows. A low feeding regimen thus appears optimal for multiparous sows in early pregnancy at least with the management regime described.     

Pregnanolone isomers,pregnenolone and their polar conjugates around parturition

The levels of four pregnanolone isomers and their polar conjugates and pregnenolone sulfate were measured in the plasma of 13 and 7 women at delivery with subarachnoidal and epidural analgesia, respectively, and in corresponding samples of umbilical plasma using a simple quadrupole GC/MS system with electron impact ionization (pregnenolone isomers), RIA following HPLC separation (pregnenolone) and specific RIA (pregnanolone sulfate). The concentration of epipregnanolone (3beta-hydroxy-5beta-pregnan-20-one) in both maternal and umbilical plasma was much lower than that of other pregnanolone isomers. The levels of 3beta-hydroxy-pregnanolone isomers were significantly higher in the umbilical plasma than in the maternal, while the differences in 3alpha-hydroxy-isomers were insignificant. The differences in conjugates were insignificant with the exception of allopregnanolone, the levels of which were lower in umbilical plasma. In all the pregnanolone isomers, a significantly lower conjugated/unconjugated steroid ratio was found in the umbilical plasma than in the maternal plasma. In addition, time profiles of the steroids were measured around parturition and in the postpartum period in the maternal serum. Similarly, the levels of polar conjugates of all pregnanolone isomers were followed during parturition. Changes in concentrations of free steroids exhibited a similar pattern, with a fall primarily within the first hour after delivery. The decrease in conjugated steroids was shifted to the interval within the first hour and first day after delivery, and the changes were more pronounced. The time profiles of the conjugated/free steroid ratio exhibited a significant decrease within the first hour and the first day after delivery in all of the isomers investigated. A decrease was also observed in the ratio of 3alpha/3beta-isomers and 5alpha/5beta-isomers around parturition. The possible physiological consequences of the findings are indicated.     

Local production of IgG4 in human colostrum

Total IgG4 levels were determined in 27 colostrum and 27 plasma paired samples by using RIA techniques, and total IgG was determined on the same pairs by using radial immunodiffusion. In colostrum, the mean IgG4 level was 4.6 micrograms/ml (0.6 to 19.0), and in the plasma the mean IgG4 level was 170.5 micrograms/ml (30 to 920). IgG averaged 42.3 micrograms/ml (12 to 240) in colostrum and 7980.9 micrograms/ml (3250 to 16,000) in plasma. Of colostral IgG, 15.3% was IgG4, whereas only 3.5% of plasma IgG was IgG4. Specific IgG4 antibodies to beta-lactoglobulin, bovine serum albumin, bermuda grass, and alpha-gliadin were also assayed. In six patients, strong evidence was found for local mammary production of IgG4-specific antibodies.     

Effects of induction of parturition in ewes with dexamethasone or oestrogen on concentrations of immunoglobulins in colostrum, and absorption of immunoglobulins by lambs

Immunoglobulins were measured in colostral whey from untreated ewes or ewes treated on days 142-145 of gestation with 15 mg oestradiol benzoate (ODB) or 10, 17.5 or 25 mg dexamethasone m-sulfobenzoate (DEX) to induce parturition. DEX at all levels reduced the concentrations of immunoglobulins in colostrum, but ODB had no effect. In a second experiment, similar treatments of ODB and DEX were applied on day 143 of gestation. Lambs were removed from their dams at birth and fed a standard volume of pooled colostrum taken from untreated ewes. They were injected with an antigen (Brucella abortus) at 12 h and 4 weeks of age. Concentrations of immunoglobulins in blood plasma at 24 h after birth of lambs from DEX-treated ewes were lower than for lambs from untreated ewes or from those treated with ODB. Response to the antigen, monitored to 12 weeks of age, was unaffected by either drug. The impairment of transfer of immunoglobulins from ewe to lamb offers a possible explanation for the higher mortality among older lambs found previously after treatment of ewes with DEX.     

Neonatal piglet survival: impact of sow nutrition around parturition on fetal glycogen deposition and production and composition of colostrum and transient milk

Piglet survival is a major problem, especially during the first 3 days after birth. Piglets are born deficient of energy, but at the same time they have a very high energy requirement because of high physical activity, high need for thermoregulation (because of their lean body with low insulation) and high heat production in muscle tissues. To be able to survive, newborn piglets may rely upon three different sources of energy, namely, glycogen, colostrum and transient milk, which orchestrate to cover their energy requirements. Piglets are born with limited amounts of energy in glycogen depots in the liver and muscle tissues and these depots are sufficient for normal activity for ∼16 h. Intake and oxidation of fat and lactose from colostrum must supply sufficient amount of energy to cover at least another 18 h until transient milk becomes available in the sow udder ∼34 h after the first piglet is born. Selection for large litters during the last two decades has challenged piglets even further during the critical neonatal phase because the selection programs indirectly decreased birth weight of piglets and because increased litter size has increased the competition between littermates. Different attempts have been made to increase the short-term survival of piglets, that is, survival until day 3 of lactation, by focusing on improving transfer of vital maternal energy to the offspring, either in utero or via mammary secretions. Thus, the present review addresses how sow nutrition in late gestation may favor survival of newborn piglets by increasing glycogen depots, improving colostrum yield or colostrum composition, or by increasing production of transient milk.     

Zinc concentrations in hair,plasma, and saliva and changes in taste acuity of adults supplemented with zinc

The effect of zinc supplementation as zinc acetate (15 mg Zn/day for 5 weeks) was determined on stimulated parotid salivary zinc levels and taste acuity. In addition, zinc and copper levels of hair and plasma in 10 healthy subjects (five male and five female) between the ages of 17 and 37 years were studied. Presupplementation and 5 weeks postsupplementation levels were evaluated as well. Taste acuity for sweet improved with zinc supplementation and returned to presupplementation levels after supplementation ceased. No changes in plasma copper or salivary zinc levels were found with zinc supplementation although stimulated parotid saliva flow rate increased. Plasma zinc levels increased significantly while hair copper increased slightly with supplementation. All indices returned to presupplementation levels by 5 weeks after cessation of supplementation.