Effects of caffeine and raynodine on low pHi-induced changes in gap junction conductance and calcium concentration in crayfish septate axons

Summary Electrical uncoupling of crayfish septate axons with acidification has been shown to cause a substantial increase in [Ca²⁺]_i which closely matches in percent the increase in junctional resistance. To determine the origin of [Ca²⁺]_i increase, septate axons have been exposed either to drugs that influence Ca²⁺ release from internal stores, caffeine and ryanodine, or to treatments that affect Ca²⁺ entry. A large increase in junctional resistance and [Ca²⁺]_i maxima above controls resulted from addition of caffeine (10–30mm) to acetate solutions, while a substantial decrease in both parameters was observed when exposure to acetate-caffeine was preceded by caffeine pretreatment. In contrast, ryanodine (1–10 m) always caused a significant decrease in junctional resistance and [Ca²⁺]_i maxima when applied either together with acetate or both before and with acetate. Calcium channel blockers such as La³⁺, Cd²⁺ and nisoldipine had no effect, while an increase in the [Ca²⁺] of acetate solutions either decreased junctional resistance and [Ca²⁺]_i maxima or had no effect. The data suggest that cytoplasmic acidification causes an increase in [Ca²⁺]_i by releasing Ca²⁺ from caffeine and ryanodine-sensitive Ca²⁺ stores. The increase in [Ca²⁺]_i results in a decrease in gap junction conductance.     

Intracellular pH,intracellular free Ca,and junctional cell-cell coupling

Summary Intracellular pH (pH _i ) and intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺] _i ) were determined inChironomus salivary gland cells under various conditions of induced uncoupling. pH _i was measured with aThomas-type microelectrode, changes in [Ca²⁺] _i and their spatial distribution inside the cell were determined with the aid of intracellularly injected aequorin and an image intensifier-TV system, and cell-to-cell coupling was measured electrically. Treatments with NaCN (5mm), DNP (1.2mm), or ionophore A23187 (2m) caused fall in junctional conductance (uncoupling) that was correlated with [Ca²⁺] _i elevation, as was shown before (Rose & Loewenstein, 1976,J. Membrane Biol. 28:87) but not with changes in pH _i : during the uncoupling induced by CN, the pH _i (normally 7.5) decreased at most by 0.2 units; during the uncoupling induced by the ionophore, pH _i fell by 0.13 or rose by 0.3; and in any one of these three agents' uncouplings, the onset of uncoupling and recovery of coupling were out of phase with the changes in pH _i . Intracellular injection of Ca-citrate or Ca-EGTA solutions buffered to pH 7.2 or 7.5 produced uncoupling with little or no pH _i change when their free [Ca²⁺] _i was >10^–5 m. On the other hand, such a solution at pH 4, buffered to [Ca²⁺]<10^–6 m, lowered pH _i to 6.8 but produced no uncoupling. Thus, a decrease in pH _i is not necessary for uncoupling in any of these conditions. In fact, uncoupling ensued also during increase in pH _i : exposure to NH₄HCO₃ or withdrawal of propionate following exposure to a propionate-containing medium caused pH _i to rise to 8.74, accompanied by [Ca²⁺] _i elevation and uncoupling at pH _i >7.8.Cell acidification itself can cause elevation of [Ca²⁺] _i : injection (iontophoresis) of H⁺ invariably caused [Ca²⁺] _i elevation and uncoupling. These effects were produced also by an application of H⁺-transporting ionophore Nigericin at extracellular pH 6.5 which caused pH _i to fall to 6.8. Exposure to 100% CO₂ produced a fall in pH _i , associated in 10 out of 25 cases with [Ca²⁺] _i elevation and, invariably, with uncoupling. The absence of a demonstrable [Ca²⁺] _i elevation in a proportion of these trials is attributable to depression in Ca²⁺-measuring sensitivity; inin vivo tests, detection sensitivity for [Ca²⁺] _i by aequorin was found to be depressed by the CO₂ treatment. Upon CO₂ washout, pH _i and coupling recovered, but onset of recoupling set in at pH _i as low as 6.32–6.88, generally lower than at the pH _i at which uncoupling had set in. Exposure to 5% CO₂ lowered pH _i on the average by 0.3 and depressed coupling (in initially poorly coupled cells). After CO₂-washout, pH _i and coupling recovered. During the recovery phase [Ca²⁺] _i was elevated, an elevation associated with renewed uncoupling or decrease in rate of recoupling. The results are discussed in connection with possible regulatory mechanisms of junctional permeability.     

Na+/K+-ATPase inhibition during cardiac myocyte swelling: Involvement of intracellular pH and Ca2+

Previous studies in chick embryo cardiac myocytes have shown that the inhibition of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase with ouabain induces cell shrinkage in an isosmotic environment (290 mOsm). The same inhibition produces an enhanced RVD (regulatory volume decrease) in hyposmotic conditions (100 mOsm). It is also known that submitting chick embryo cardiomyocytes to a hyperosmotic solution induces shrinkage and a concurrent intracellular alkalization. The objective of this study was to evaluate the involvement of intracellular pH (pH_i), intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_i) and Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase inhibition during hyposmotic swelling. Changes in intracellular pH and Ca²⁺ were monitored using BCECF and fura-2, respectively. The addition of ouabain (100 M) under both isosmotic and hyposmotic stimuli resulted in a large increase in [Ca²⁺]_i (200%). A decrease in pH_i (from 7.3 ± 0.09 to 6.4 ± 0.08, n = 6; p < 0.05) was only observed when ouabain was applied during hyposmotic swelling. This acidification was prevented by the removal of extracellular Ca²⁺. Inhibition of Na⁺/H²⁺ exchange with amiloride (1 mM) had no effect on the ouabain-induced acidification. Preventing the mitochondrial accumulation of Ca²⁺ using CCCP (10 M) resulted in a blockade of the progressive acidification normally induced by ouabain. The inhibition of mitochondrial membrane K⁺/H⁺ exchange with DCCD (1 mM) also completely prevented the acidification. Our results suggest that intracellular acidification upon cell swelling is mediated by an initial Ca²⁺ influx via Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange, which under hyposmotic conditions activates the K⁺ and Ca²⁺ mitochondrial exchange systems (K⁺/H⁺ and Ca²⁺/H⁺).Deceased     

Parallel control of the inward-rectifier K+ channel by cytosolic free Ca2+ and pH inVicia guard cells

The influence of cytosolic pH (pH_i) in controlling K⁺-channel activity and its interaction with cytosolic-free Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) was examined in stomatal guard cells ofVicia faba L. Intact guard cells were impaled with multibarrelled microelectrodes and K⁺-channel currents were recorded under voltage clamp while pH_i or [Ca²⁺]_i was monitored concurrently by fluorescence ratio photometry using the fluorescent dyes 2,7-bis (2-carboxyethyl)-5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF) and Fura-2. In 10 mM external K⁺ concentration, current through inward-rectifying K⁺ channels (I_K,in) was evoked on stepping the membrane from a holding potential of –100 mV to voltages from –120 to –250 mV. Challenge with 0.3-30 mM Na+-butyrate and Na⁺-acetate outside imposed acid loads, lowering pH_i from a mean resting value of 7.64 ± 0.03 (n = 25) to values from 7.5 to 6.7. The effect on pH_i was independent of the weak acid used, and indicated a H⁺-buffering capacity which rose from 90 mM H⁺/pH unit near 7.5 to 160 mM H⁺/pH unit near pH_i 7.0. With acid-going pH_i, (I_K,in) was promoted in scalar fashion, the current increasing in magnitude with the acid load, but without significant effect on the current relaxation kinetics at voltages negative of –150 mV or the voltage-dependence for channel gating. Washout of the weak acid was followed by transient rise in pH_i lasting 3–5 min and was accompanied by a reduction in (I_K,in) before recovery of the initial resting pH_i and current amplitude. The pH_i-sensitivity of the current was consistent with a single, titratable site for H⁺ binding with a pK_a near 6.3. Acid pH_i loads also affected current through the outward-rectifying K⁺ channels (I_K,out) in a manner antiparallel to (I_K,in) The effect on I_K, out was also scalar, but showed an apparent pK_a of 7.4 and was best accommodated by a cooperative binding of two H⁺. Parallel measurements showed that Na⁺-butyrate loads were generally without significant effect on [Ca²⁺]_i, except when pH_i was reduced to 7.0 and below. Extreme acid loads evoked reversible increases in [Ca²⁺]_i in roughly half the cells measured, although the effect was generally delayed with respect to the time course of pH_i changes and K⁺-channel responses. The action on [Ca²⁺]_i coincided with a greater variability in (I_K,in) stimulation evident at pH_i values around 7.0 and below, and with negative displacements in the voltage-dependence of (I_K,in) gating. These results distinguish the actions of pH_i and [Ca²⁺]_i in modulating (I_K,in) they delimit the effect of pH_i to changes in current amplitude without influence on the voltage-dependence of channel gating; and they support a role for pH_i as a second messenger capable of acting in parallel with, but independent of [Ca²⁺]_i in controlling the K⁺ channels.Abbreviations BCECF 2,7-bis (2-carboxyethyl)-5(6)-carboxy fluorescein - [Ca²⁺]_i cytosolic free Ca²⁺ concentration - g_K ensemble (steady-state) K⁺-channel conductance - I_K,out, I_K,in outward-, inward-rectifying K⁺ channel (current) - IN current-voltage (relation) - Mes 2-(N-morpholinolethanesulfonic acid - pH_i cytosolic pH - V membrane potential     

Effects of the anesthetics heptanol,halothane and isoflurane on gap junction conductance in crayfish septate axons: A calcium- and hydrogen-independent phenomenon potentiated by caffeine and theophylline,and inhibited by 4-aminopyridine

Summary This study has monitored junctional and nonjunctional resistance. [Ca²⁺] _i and [H^–] _i , and the effects of various drugs in crayfish septate axons exposed to neutral anesthetics. The uncoupling efficiency of heptanol and halothane is significantly potentiated by caffeine and theophylline. The modest uncoupling effects of isoflurane, described here for the first time, are also enhanced by caffeine. Heptanol causes a decrease in [Ca²⁺] _i and [H⁺] _i both in the presence and absence of either caffeine or theophylline. A similar but transient effect on [Ca²⁺] _i is observed with halothane. 4-Aminopyridine strongly inhibits the uncoupling effects of heptanol. The observed decrease in [Ca^2–] _i with heptanol and halothane and negative results obtained with different [Ca²⁺] _o , Ca²⁺-channel blockers (nisoldipine and Cd²⁺) and ryanodine speak against a Ca²⁺ participation. Negative results obtained with 3-isobutyl-l-methylxanthine, forskolin, CPT-cAMP, 8Br-cGMP, adenosine, phorbol ester and H7, superfused in the presence and absence of caffeine and/or heptanol. indicate that neither the heptanol effects nor their potentiation by caffeine are mediated by cyclic nucleotides, adenosine receptors and kinase C. The data suggest a direct effect of anesthetics. possibly involving both polar and hydrophobic interactions with channel proteins. Xanthines and 4-aminopyridine may participate by influencing polar interactions. The potentiating effect of xanthines on cell-to-cell uncoupling by anesthetics may provide some clues on the nature of cardiac arrhythmias in patients treated with theophylline during halothane anesthesia.     

External bioenergy-induced increases in intracellular free calcium concentrations are mediated by Na+/Ca2+ exchanger and L-type calcium channel

External bioenergy (EBE, energy emitted from a human body) has been shown to increase intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i, an important factor in signal transduction) and regulate the cellular response to heat stress in cultured human lymphoid Jurkat T cells. In this study, we wanted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. A bioenergy specialist emitted bioenergy sequentially toward tubes of cultured Jurkat T cells for one 15-minute period in buffers containing different ion compositions or different concentrations of inhibitors. [Ca²⁺]_i was measured spectrofluorometrically using the fluorescent probe fura-2. The resting [Ca²⁺]_i in Jurkat T cells was 70 ± 3 nM (n = 130) in the normal buffer. Removal of external calcium decreased the resting [Ca²⁺]_i to 52 ± 2 nM (n = 23), indicating that [Ca²⁺] entry from the external source is important for maintaining the basal level of [Ca²⁺]_i. Treatment of Jurkat T cells with EBE for 15 min increased [Ca²⁺]_i by 30 ± 5% (P 0.05, Student t-test). The distance between the bioenergy specialist and Jurkat T cells and repetitive treatments of EBE did not attenuate [Ca²⁺]_i responsiveness to EBE. Removal of external Ca²⁺ or Na⁺, but not Mg²⁺, inhibited the EBE-induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_i. Dichlorobenzamil, an inhibitor of Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchangers, also inhibited the EBE-induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_i in a concentration-dependent manner with an IC50 of 0.11 ± 0.02 nM. When external [K⁺] was increased from 4.5 mM to 25 mM, EBE decreased [Ca²⁺]_i. The EBE-induced increase was also blocked by verapamil, an L-type voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channel blocker. These results suggest that the EBE-induced [Ca²⁺]_i increase may serve as an objective means for assessing and validating bioenergy effects and those specialists claiming bioenergy capability. The increase in [Ca²⁺]_i is mediated by activation of Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchangers and opening of L-type voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels. (Mol Cell Biochem 271: 51–59, 2005)     

Comparative study of the effects of cromakalim (BRL 34915) and diazoxide on membrane potential, [Ca2+] i and ATP-sensitive potassium currents in insulin-secreting cells

Summary Patch-clamp and single cell [Ca²⁺] _i measurements have been used to investigate the effects of the potassium channel modulators cromakalim, diazoxide and tolbutamide on the insulin-secreting cell line RINm5F. In intact cells, with an average cellular transmembrane potential of –62±2 mV (n=42) and an average basal [Ca²⁺] _i of 102±6nm (n=37), glucose (2.5–10mm): (i) depolarized the membrane, through a decrease in the outward K_ATP current, (ii) evoked Ca²⁺ spike potentials, and (iii) caused a sharp rise in [Ca²⁺] _i . In the continued presence of glucose both cromakalim (100–200 m) and diazoxide (100 m) repolarized the membrane, terminated Ca²⁺ spike potentials and attenuated the secretagogue-induced rise in [Ca²⁺] _i . In whole cells (voltage-clamp records) and excised outside-out membrane patches, both cromakalim and diazoxide enhanced the current by opening ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels. Diazoxide was consistently found to be more potent than cromakalim. Tolbutamide, a specific inhibitor of ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels, reversed the effects of cromakalim on membrane potential and K_ATP currents.     

Mechanisms of low Na+-induced increase in intracellular calcium in KCl-depolarized rat cardiomyocytes

Although low Na⁺ is known to increase the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) in cardiac muscle, the exact mechanisms of low Na⁺-induced increases in [Ca²⁺]_i are not completely defined. To gain information in this regard, we examined the effects of low Na⁺ (35 mM) on freshly isolated cardiomyocytes from rat heart in the absence and presence of different interventions. The [Ca²⁺]_i in cardiomyocytes was measured fluorometrically with Fura-2 AM. Following a 10 min incubation, the low Na⁺-induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_i was only observed in cardiomyocytes depolarized with 30 mM KCl, but not in quiescent cardiomyocytes. In contrast, low Na⁺ did not alter the ATP-induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_i in the cardiomyocytes. This increase in [Ca²⁺]_i due to low Na⁺ and elevated KCl was dependent on the extracellular concentration of Ca²⁺ (0.25–2.0 mM). The L-type Ca²⁺-channel blockers, verapamil and diltiazem, at low concentrations (1 M) depressed the low Na⁺, KCl-induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_i without significantly affecting the response to low Na⁺ alone. The low Na⁺, high KCl-induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_i was attenuated by treatments of cardiomyocytes with high concentrations of both verapamil (5 and 10 M), and diltiazem (5 and 10 M) as well as with amiloride (5–20 M), nickel (1.25–5.0 mM), cyclopiazonic acid (25 and 50 M) and thapsigargin (10 and 20 M). On the other hand, this response was augmented by ouabain (1 and 2 mM) and unaltered by 5-(N-methyl-N-isobutyl) amiloride (5 and 10 M). These data suggest that in addition to the sarcolemmal Na⁺–Ca²⁺ exchanger, both sarcolemmal Na⁺–K⁺ATPase, as well as the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-pump play prominent roles in the low Na⁺-induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_i. (Mol Cell Biochem 263: 151–162, 2004)     

Modulation of Ca2+ Influx in Leech Retzius Neurons II. Effect of Extracellular Ca2+

We investigated the cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) of leech Retzius neurons in situ while varying the extracellular Ca²⁺ concentration via the bathing solution ([Ca²⁺]_B). Changing [Ca²⁺]_B had only an effect on [Ca²⁺]_i if the cells were depolarized by raising the extracellular K⁺ concentration. Surprisingly, raising [Ca²⁺]_B from 2 to 10 mm caused a decrease in [Ca²⁺]_i, and an increase was evoked by reducing [Ca²⁺]_B to 0.1 mm. These changes were not due to shifts in membrane potential. At low [Ca²⁺]_B moderate membrane depolarizations were sufficient to evoke a [Ca²⁺]_i increase, while progressively larger depolarizations were necessary at higher [Ca²⁺]_B. The changes in the relationship between [Ca²⁺]_i and membrane potential upon varying [Ca²⁺]_B could be reversed by changing extracellular pH. We conclude that [Ca²⁺]_B affects [Ca²⁺]_i by modulating Ca²⁺ influx through voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels via the electrochemical Ca²⁺ gradient and the surface potential at the extracellular side of the plasma membrane. These two parameters are affected in a counteracting way: Raising the extracellular Ca²⁺ concentration enhances the electrochemical Ca²⁺ gradient and hence Ca²⁺ influx, but it attenuates Ca²⁺ channel activity by shifting the extracellular surface potential to the positive direction, and vice versa. Received: 23 January 2001/Revised: 23 June 2001     

Magnesium homeostasis in cardiac cells

Several aspects of Mg²⁺ homeostasis were investigated in cultured chicken heart cells using the fluorescent Mg²⁺ indicator, FURAPTRA. The concentration of cytosolic Mg²⁺ ([Mg²⁺]_i) is 0.48 ± 0.03 mM (n = 31). To test whether a putative Na/Mg exchange mechanism controls [Mg²⁺]_i below electrochemical equilibrium, we manipulated the Na⁺ gradient and assessed the effects on [Mg²⁺]_i. When extracellular Na⁺ was removed, [Mg²⁺]_i increased; this increase was not altered in Mg-free solutions, but was attenuated in Ca-free solutions. A similar increase in [Mg²⁺]_i, which was dependent upon extracellular Ca²⁺, was observed when intracellular Na⁺ was raised by inhibiting the Na/K pump with ouabain. These results do not provide evidence for Na/Mg exchange in heart cells, but they suggest that Ca²⁺ can modulate [Mg²⁺]_i. In addition, removing extracellular Na⁺ caused a decrease in intracellular pH (pH_i), as measured by pH-sensitive microelectrodes, and this acidification was attenuated when Cat+ was also removed from the solution. These results suggest that Ca²⁺ and H⁺ interact intracellularly. Since changes in the Na⁺ gradient can also alter pH_i, we questioned whether pH can modulate [Mg²⁺]_i. pH_i was manipulated by the NH₄Cl prepulse method. NH₄ ⁺-evoked changes in pH_i, as measured by the fluorescent indicator BCECF, were accompanied by opposite changes in [Mg²⁺]_i; [Mg²⁺]_i changed by –0.16 mM/unit pH. These NH₄ ⁺-evoked changes in [Mg²⁺]_i were not caused by movements of Mg₂₊ or Ca²⁺ across the sarcolemma or by changes in cytosolic Ca²⁺. Additionally, pH_i was manipulated by changing extracellular pH (pH_o). When pH_o was decreased from 7.4 to 6.3, pH_i decreased by 0.64 units and [Mg₂₊]_i increased by 0.12 mM; in contrast, when pH_o was raised from 7.4 to 8.3, pH_i increased by 0.6 units and [Mg²⁺]_i did not change significantly. The results of our investigations suggest that Ca ²⁺ and H⁺ can modulate [Mg²⁺]_i, probably by affecting cytosolic Mg²⁺ binding and/or subcellular Mg²⁺ transport and that such redistribution of intracellular Mg²⁺ may play an important role in Mg²⁺ homeostasis in cardiac cells.     

Molecular underpinning of intracellular pH regulation on TMEM16F

TMEM16F, a dual-function phospholipid scramblase and ion channel, is important in blood coagulation, skeleton development, HIV infection, and cell fusion. Despite advances in understanding its structure and activation mechanism, how TMEM16F is regulated by intracellular factors remains largely elusive. Here we report that TMEM16F lipid scrambling and ion channel activities are strongly influenced by intracellular pH (pH_i). We found that low pH_i attenuates, whereas high pH_i potentiates, TMEM16F channel and scramblase activation under physiological concentrations of intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_i). We further demonstrate that TMEM16F pH_i sensitivity depends on [Ca²⁺]_i and exhibits a bell-shaped relationship with [Ca²⁺]_i: TMEM16F channel activation becomes increasingly pH_i sensitive from resting [Ca²⁺]_i to micromolar [Ca²⁺]_i, but when [Ca²⁺]_i increases beyond 15 µM, pH_i sensitivity gradually diminishes. The mutation of a Ca²⁺-binding residue that markedly reduces TMEM16F Ca²⁺ sensitivity (E667Q) maintains the bell-shaped relationship between pH_i sensitivity and Ca²⁺ but causes a dramatic shift of the peak [Ca²⁺]_i from 15 µM to 3 mM. Our biophysical characterizations thus pinpoint that the pH_i regulatory effects on TMEM16F stem from the competition between Ca²⁺ and protons for the primary Ca²⁺-binding residues in the pore. Within the physiological [Ca²⁺]_i range, the protonation state of the primary Ca²⁺-binding sites influences Ca²⁺ binding and regulates TMEM16F activation. Our findings thus uncover a regulatory mechanism of TMEM16F by pH_i and shine light on our understanding of the pathophysiological roles of TMEM16F in diseases with dysregulated pH_i, including cancer.     

Calcium-dependent control of volume regulation in renal proximal tubule cells: II. Roles of dihydropyridine-sensitive and-insensitive Ca2+ entry pathways

Summary The Ca^2– entry pathways in the basolateral plasma membrane of the isolated, nonperfused proximal straight tubule (PST) of rabbit kidney were investigated using fura-2 fluorescence microscopy. Under isotonic conditions, reduction of bath [Ca^2–] from 1 mM to 1 M caused intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) to fall close to zero. Treatment with 10 M verapamil, a calcium channel blocker, had a similar effect. Treatment with verapamil or low Ca²⁺ also induced fluctuations in cell volume. However, isotonic treatment with 10 M nifedipine, a dihydropyridine (DHP)-type calcium channel blocker, did not affect [Ca²⁺]_i or cell volume, indicating that the endogenous Ca²⁺ entry pathway is verapamil-sensitive but DHP-insensitive. When cells were exposed to hypotonic solutions in the presence of 1 mM Ca²⁺, they swelled and underwent normal RVD while [Ca²⁺]_i increased transiently to a peak before decreasing to a late phase plateau level above the baseline level (see McCarty, N.A., O'Neil, R.G. 1991.J. Membrane Biol. 123:149–160). When cells were swollen in the presence of verapamil or low bath [Ca²⁺], RVD was abolished and [Ca²⁺]_i fell well below the baseline during the late phase response. In contrast, when cells were swollen in the presence of nifedipine, RVD and the late phase rise in [Ca²⁺]_i were abolished, but [Ca²⁺]_i did not fall below the baseline level in the late phase, indicating that nifedipine inhibited the swelling-induced Ca²⁺ entry but that Ca²⁺ entry by another pathway was undisturbed. It was concluded that PST cells are characterized by two Ca²⁺ permeability pathways in the basolateral membrane. Under both isotonic and hypotonic conditions, Ca²⁺ entry occurs at a slow rate via a verapamil-sensitive, DHP-insensitive baseline Ca²⁺ entry pathway. Cell swelling activates a separate DHP-sensitive, verapamil-sensitive Ca²⁺ entry pathway, which is responsible for the supply of Ca ions to the Ca²⁺-dependent mechanism by which cell volume regulation is achieved.     

A decrease of both [Ca]e and [H]e produces cell damage in the perfused rat heart

Cell damage of the Langendorff-perfused rat heart in response to a decrease of both [Ca²⁺]_e and [H⁺]_e is described. At pH_e = 7.7, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release could be induced during perfusion with media of reduced [Ca²⁺]_e (0.1–0.4 mmol/I). Decreasing pH_e to normal abolished LDH release. The gap junction channel blocker heptanol (2 mmol/I) also reduced enzyme release, and polyethylene glycol (9% PEG₆₀₀₀) totally prevented cell damage. Elevation of buffer capacity of perfusion media or perfusion flow both increased LDH release. Cell damage could also be aggravated by substituting 10 mmol/I of [Na⁺]_e by foreign cations. At [Ca²⁺]_e = 0.1 mmol/I and pH_e = 7.7, [Ca²⁺]_i and [Na⁺]_i of non-lysed cells were markedly increased (in HCO₃/CO₂ buffered media to about 7.0 μmol/I and 36 mmol/I, respectively; in HEPES-buffered media, to about 5.0 μmol/I and 55 mmol/l; physiological values of [Ca²⁺]_i and [Na⁺]_i are around 0.1 μmol/I and 10 mmol/I, respectively), whereas pH_i was not appreciably elevated. In contrast to myocytes in the intact heart, [Ca²⁺]_i of isolated cardiomyocytes under similar conditions was decreased to about 75 nmol/I and LDH release was negligible; pH_i of isolated cardiomyocytes, as in intact myocardium, did not change appreciably. The results indicate that Ca²⁺ overload is produced at lowered [Ca²⁺]_e and [H⁺]_e by an influx of Ca²⁺ through gap junctional leaks.     

Calcium and the regulation of mammalian ciliary beating

Summary This report summarizes our recent work on the role of intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_i) in regulating mammalian ciliary beat frequency (CBF). CBF from a single ovine cilium and [Ca²⁺]_i from the same cell were measured by digital video phase contrast microscopy and fura-2 ratiometric imaging video microscopy, respectively. Cells were stimulated with two exposures to 10 M acetylcholine (ACh). CBF was recorded during the first and [Ca²⁺]_i during the second stimulation. ACh increased [Ca²⁺]_i and CBF transiently with indistinguishable kinetics and, early in culture, even induced [Ca²⁺]_i oscillations and ciliary frequency modulations with the same peak-to-peak time interval. Cells treated with 1 M thapsigargin, an inhibitor of the endoplasmic-reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase, showed transient [Ca²⁺]_i and CBF increases, again with similar kinetics, which often remained at an elevated plateau. Application of ACh to cells pretreated with thapsigargin produced decreases in both [Ca²⁺]_i and CBF. Finally, changing extracellular Ca²⁺-concentrations induced corresponding changes in [Ca²⁺]_i that were associated with kinetically similar CBF changes. These data strongly suggested that [Ca²⁺]_i is a critical signal to regulate CBF in mammalian tracheal epithelial cells. In an initial effort to provide constraints on the number and type of reactions that link changes in [Ca²⁺]_i to changes in CBF, simultaneous recordings of both signals from a single cell were analyzed. Such recordings provided higher resolution of the kinetic responses of CBF and [Ca²⁺]_i to ACh as well as they allowed direct assessment of the coupling between [Ca²⁺]_i and CBF. Simultaneous measurements revealed that [Ca²⁺]_i and CBF were perfectly correlated within the CBF measurement time resolution, except for the period of the fastest changes in both signals during the initial ACh exposure. There, changes in CBF lagged the changes in [Ca²⁺]_i by 1–3 ciliary beat cycles (ca. 150–450 ms).     

Modulation of Ca2+ Influx in Leech Retzius Neurons. I. Effect of Extracellular pH

We investigated the cytosolic free Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) of leech Retzius neurons in situ while varying the extracellular and intracellular pH as well as the extracellular ionic strength. Changing these parameters had no significant effect on [Ca²⁺]_i when the membrane potential of the cells was close to its resting value. However, when the cells were depolarized by raising the extracellular K⁺ concentration or by applying the glutamatergic agonist kainate, extracellular pH and ionic strength markedly affected [Ca²⁺]_i, whereas intracellular pH changes appeared to have virtually no effect. An extracellular acidification decreased [Ca²⁺]_i, while alkalinization or reduction of the ionic strength increased it. Correspondingly, [Ca²⁺]_i also increased when the kainate-induced extracellular acidification was reduced by raising the pH-buffering capacity. At low extracellular pH, the membrane potential to which the cells must be depolarized to evoke a detectable [Ca²⁺]_i increase was shifted to more positive values, and it moved to more negative values at high pH. We conclude that in leech Retzius neurons extracellular pH, but not intracellular pH, affects [Ca²⁺]_i by modulating Ca²⁺ influx through voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels. The results suggest that this modulation is mediated primarily by shifts in the surface potential at the extracellular side of the plasma membrane. Received: 23 January 2001/Revised: 15 June 2001     

Permeability of a cell junction and the local cytoplasmic free ionized calcium concentration: A study with aequorin

Summary A technique is devised to determine the spatial distribution of the free ionized cytoplasmic calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺] _i ) inside a cell:Chironomus salivary gland cells are loaded with aequorin, and the Ca²⁺-dependent light emission of the aequorin is scanned with an image-intensifier/television system. With this technique, the [Ca²⁺] _i is determined simultaneously with junctional electrical coupling when Ca²⁺ is microinjected into the cells, or when the cells are exposed to metabolic inhibitors, Ca-transporting ionophores, or Ca-free medium. Ca microinjections elevating the [Ca²⁺] _i the junctional locale produce depression of junctional membrane conductance. When the [Ca²⁺] _i elevation is confined to the vicinity of one cell junction, the conductance of that junction alone is depressed; other junctions of the same cell are not affected. The depression sets in as the [Ca²⁺] _i rises in the junctional locale, and reverses after the [Ca²⁺] _i falls to baseline. When the [Ca²⁺] _i elevation is diffuse throughout the cell, the conductances of all junctions of the cell are depressed. The Ca injections produce no detectable [Ca²⁺] _i elevations in cells adjacent to the injected one; the Ca-induced change in junctional membrane permeability seems fast enough to block appreciable transjunctional flow of Ca²⁺. Control injections of Cl^– or K⁺ do not affect junctional conductance. The Ca injections that elevate [Ca²⁺] _i sufficiently to depress junctional conductance also produce under the usual conditions an increase in nonjunctional membrane conductance and, hence, depolarization. But injections that elevate [Ca²⁺] _i at the junction while largely avoiding nonjunctional membrane cause depression of junctional conductance with little or no depolarization. Moreover, elevations of [Ca²⁺] _i in cells clamped near resting potential produce the depression, too. On the other hand, complete depolarization in K medium does not produce the depression, unless accompanied by [Ca²⁺] _i elevation. Thus, the depolarization is neither necessary nor sufficient for depression of junctional conductance. Treatment with cyanide, dinitrophenol and ionophores X537 A or A23187 produces diffuse elevation of [Ca²⁺] _i associated with depression of nunctional conductance. Prolonged exposure to Ca-free medium leads to fluctuation in [Ca²⁺] _i where rise and fall of [Ca²⁺] _i correlate respectively with fall and rise in junctional conductance.     

Changes in cytosolic CA2+ are not involved in DDT-induced loss of gap junctional communication in WB-F344 cells

Recent studies have demonstrated that the insecticide DDT is a tumor promoting agent. Similar to many other tumor promoting agents, DDT has been shown to inhibit gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) between cells in culture, and it has been suggested that DDT-induced loss of communication between adjacent cells may depend on changes in cytosolic free Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i). In the present study, the role of[Ca²⁺]_i in DDT-induced loss of GJIC was investigated in WB-F344 rat liver cells using the scrape-loading/dye transfer assay (SLDT) and the Ca²⁺ fourescent indicator, furà-2. Our results show that DDT at non-cytotoxic concentrations caused a reversible loss of GJIC. Inhibition of GJIC was not associated with detectable increases in [Ca²⁺]_i, and was not prevented by loading cells with the intracellular Ca²⁺ chelator, BAPTA. In addition, the hydroquinone, tBuBHQ, which caused a 2+3 fold sustained increase in [Ca²⁺]_i, did not inhibit GJIC. Conversely, when untreated cells were loaded with increasing BAPTA concentrations, GJIC were lost. These results indicate that increases in [Ca²⁺]_i are not responsible for DDT-induced loss of communication and that, in general an increase in [Ca²⁺]_i, within physiological levels is not sufficient to abolish GJIC. However, Ca²⁺-dependent processes that are active at normal resting [Ca²⁺ _i appear to be required for the maintenance of GJIC.Abbreviations [Ca²⁺] cytosolic free Ca²⁺ concentration - GJIC gap junctional intercellular communication - SLDT scrape-loading/dye transfer assay - DDT 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di-(4-chlorophenyl)ethane - tBuBHQ 2,5-di(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone - LDH lactate dehydrogenase - ER endoplasmic reticulum - Fura-2 1-[2-(5carboxyoxazol-2-yl)-6-aminobenzofuran-5-oxyl]-2-(2amino-5-methylphenoxy)-ethane-N,N,N,N-tetraacetic acid - BAPTA bis-(o-aminophenoxy)-ethane-N,N,N,N-tetraaceticacid - Fura-2/AM and BAPTA/AM are the cell permeant acetoxymethyl ester forms of fura-2 and BAPTA, respectively     

Calcium-dependent control of volume regulation in renal proximal tubule cells: I. Swelling-Activated Ca2+ entry and release

Summary The mechanism of Ca²⁺-dependent control of hypotonic cell volume regulation was investigated in the isolated, nonperfused renal proximal straight tubule. When proximal tubules were exposed to hypotonic solution with 1 mM Ca²⁺, cells swelled rapidly and then underwent regulatory volume decrease (RVD). This treatment resulted in an increase in intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) by a mechanism that had two phases: the first was a transient increase from baseline (136 nM) to a peak (413 nM) that occurred in the first 15–20 sec, but was followed by a rapid decay toward the pre-swelling levels. The second phase was characterized by a sustained elevation of [Ca²⁺]_i above the baseline (269 nM), which was maintained over several minutes. The dependence of these two phases on extracellular Ca²⁺ was determined. Reduction of bath [Ca²⁺] to 10 or 1 M partially diminished the transient phase, but abolished the sustained phase completely, such that [Ca²⁺]_i fell below the base-line levels during RVD. It was concluded that the transient increase resulted predominantly from swelling-activated release of intracellular Ca²⁺ stores and that the sustained phase was due to swelling-activated Ca²⁺ entry across the plasma membrane. Ca²⁺ entry probably also contributed to the transient increase in [Ca²⁺]_i. The time dependence of swelling-activated Ca²⁺ entry was also investigated, since it was previously shown that RVD was characterized by a calcium window period (<60 sec). during which extracellular Ca²⁺ was required. Outside of this time period, RVD would inactivate and could not be reactivated by subsequent addition of Ca²⁺. It was found that the Ca²⁺ permeability did not inactivate over several minutes, indicating that the temporal dependence of RVD on extracellular Ca²⁺ is not due to the transient activation of a Ca²⁺ entry pathway.     

Properties of a Novel pH-dependent Ca2+ Permeation Pathway Present in Male Germ Cells with Possible Roles in Spermatogenesis and Mature Sperm Function

Rises of intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_i) are key signals for cell division, differentiation, and maturation. Similarly, they are likely to be important for the unique processes of meiosis and spermatogenesis, carried out exclusively by male germ cells. In addition, elevations of [Ca²⁺]_i and intracellular pH (pH_i) in mature sperm trigger at least two events obligatory for fertilization: capacitation and acrosome reaction. Evidence implicates the activity of Ca²⁺ channels modulated by pH_i in the origin of these Ca²⁺ elevations, but their nature remains unexplored, in part because work in individual spermatozoa are hampered by formidable experimental difficulties. Recently, late spermatogenic cells have emerged as a model system for studying aspects relevant for sperm physiology, such as plasmalemmal ion fluxes. Here we describe the first study on the influence of controlled intracellular alkalinization on [Ca²⁺]_i on identified spermatogenic cells from mouse adult testes. In BCECF [(2′,7′)-bis(carboxymethyl)- (5,6)-carboxyfluorescein]-AM-loaded spermatogenic cells, a brief (30–60 s) application of 25 mM NH₄Cl increased pH_i by ∼1.3 U from a resting pH_i ∼6.65. A steady pH_i plateau was maintained during NH₄Cl application, with little or no rebound acidification. In fura-2-AM-loaded cells, alkalinization induced a biphasic response composed of an initial [Ca²⁺]_i drop followed by a two- to threefold rise. Maneuvers that inhibit either Ca²⁺ influx or intracellular Ca²⁺ release demonstrated that the majority of the Ca²⁺ rise results from plasma membrane Ca²⁺ influx, although a small component likely to result from intracellular Ca²⁺ release was occasionally observed. Ca²⁺ transients potentiated with repeated NH₄Cl applications, gradually obliterating the initial [Ca²⁺]_i drop. The pH-sensitive Ca²⁺ permeation pathway allows the passage of other divalents (Sr²⁺, Ba²⁺, and Mn²⁺) and is blocked by inorganic Ca²⁺ channel blockers (Ni²⁺ and Cd²⁺), but not by the organic blocker nifedipine. The magnitude of these Ca²⁺ transients increased as maturation advanced, with the largest responses being recorded in testicular sperm. By extrapolation, these findings suggest that the pH-dependent Ca²⁺ influx pathway could play significant roles in mature sperm physiology. Its pharmacology and ion selectivity suggests that it corresponds to an ion channel different from the voltage-gated T-type Ca²⁺ channel also present in spermatogenic cells. We postulate that the Ca²⁺ permeation pathway regulated by pH_i, if present in mature sperm, may be responsible for the dihydropyridine-insensitive Ca²⁺ influx required for initiating the acrosome reaction and perhaps other important sperm functions.     

Intracellular Calcium Changes in Neuronal Cells Induced by Alzheimer's ß-Amyloid Protein Are Blocked by Estradiol and Cholesterol

1. The elevation of intracellular Ca²⁺ levels ([Ca²⁺]_i) in immortalized hypothalamic neurons (GT1–7 cells) after exposure to Alzheimer's ß-amyloid protein (AßP[25–35]) was investigated using a multisite fluorometry system.2. The marked rise in [Ca²⁺]_i appeared afterexposure to 5–20-M AßP[25–35]. Analysis of the spatiotemporal patterns of [Ca²⁺]_i changes revealed that the magnitude and the latency of the response to AßP in each cell werehighly heterogeneous.3. The preadministration of 17ß-estradiol, 17-estradiol, phloretin and cholesterol, which influence the properties of membranes, such as membrane fluidity or membrane potential, significantly decreased the rise in [Ca²⁺]_i.4. These findings support the idea that disruption of calcium homeostasis by AßP channels may be the molecular basis of the neurotoxicity of AßP and of the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. It is also suggested that membrane properties may play key roles in the expression of neurotoxicity.