Aggressive and Docile Colony Defence Patterns in Apis mellifera. A Retreater–Releaser Concept

Colony defence in Apis mellifera involves a variety of traits ranging from ‘aggressive’ (e.g. entrance guarding, recruitment of flying guards) to ‘docile’ (e.g. retreating into the nest) expression. We tested 11 colonies of three subspecies (capensis, scutellata, carnica) regarding their defensiveness. Each colony was selected as reportedly ‘aggressive’, ‘intermediate’ or ‘docile’ and consisted of about 10,000 bees. We applied three stimulation regimes (mechanical disturbance, exposure to alarm pheromones, and the combination of both) and measured their behaviours by tracking the rates of outflying bees at the entrance sites of the test hives. We provided evidence that for mechanical disturbances the test colonies resolved into two response types, if the ‘immediate’ defence response, assessed in the first minute of stimulation, was taken as a function of foraging: ‘releaser’ colonies allocated flying guards, ‘retreater’ colonies reduced the outside-hive activities. This division was observed irrespective of the subspecies membership and maintained in even roughly changing environmental conditions. However, if pheromone and mechanical stimulation were combined, the variety of colony defensiveness restricted to two further types irrespective of the subspecies membership: six of nine colonies degraded their rate of flying defenders with increasing foraging level, three of the colonies extended their ‘aggressiveness’ by increasing the defender rate with the foraging level. Such ‘super-aggressive’ colonies obviously are able to allocate two separate recruitment pools for foragers and flying defenders.     

Spectral call features provide information about the aggression level of greater mouse-eared bats (Myotis myotis) during agonistic interactions

Bats rely heavily on acoustic signals in order to communicate with each other in a variety of social contexts. Among those, agonistic interactions and accompanying vocalizations have received comparatively little study. Here, we studied the communicational behaviour between male greater mouse-eared bats (Myotis myotis) during agonistic encounters. Two randomly paired adult males were placed in a box that allowed us to record video and sound synchronously. We describe their vocal repertoire and compare the acoustic structure of vocalizations between two aggression levels, which we quantified via the bats’ behaviour. By inspecting thirty, one-minute long encounters, we identified a rich variety of social calls that can be described as two basic call types: echolocation-like, low-frequency sweeps and long, broadband squawks. Squawks, the most common vocalization, were often noisy, i.e. exhibited a chaotic spectral structure. We further provide evidence for individual signatures and the presence of nonlinear phenomena in this species’ vocal repertoire. As the usage and acoustic structure of vocalizations is known to encode the internal state of the caller, we had predicted that the spectral structure of squawks would be affected by the caller’s aggression level. Confirming our hypothesis, we found that increased aggression positively correlated with an increase in call frequency and tonality. We hypothesize that the extreme spectral variability between and within squawks can be explained by small fluctuations in vocal control parameters (e.g. subglottal pressure) that are caused by the elevated arousal, which is in turn influenced by the aggression level.     

Vocal Cues in Cotton-top Tamarin Play Vocalizations1

In cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus o. oedipus) one finds a significantly increased frequency of occurrence of playful wrestling, where the respective vocalizations are characterized by a high degree of instability in the contour of the fundamental frequency. Approximately 20 s after these instable pitched vocalizations, however, frequency of occurrence is significantly reduced. The ethometric methods and those for the detailed analysis of vocalizations are explained in this paper. It is hypothesized that instable pitch expresses some kind of emotion involved in playful interactions.     

How rhesus monkey mothers and infants keep in touch when infants are at risk from social companions

Ten-to 17-week-old rhesus monkey infants that received hits from companions other than their mother at high rates (relative to their rates of involvement in playful social encounters with those companions) tended to be members of mother-infant dyads that were vigilant. Criteria of vigilance were frequent contacts between mother and infant during the first 5 sec of the infants’ social encounters and/or a bias of mother-infant contacts toward that time. Infants that received few hits per encounter came from both vigilant and nonvigilant dyads. When analyzed alone, mothers’ rates showed the same trends. High levels of vigilance tended to reduce infants’rates of making social contacts. Maternal social rank and other measures of the infants’ social involvement were not correlated with vigilance. There is no evidence that mothers and infants were in conflict with each other about interrupting the infants’ encounters. Understanding vigilance becomes important whenever vigilant activity conflicts with other activities. Special problems arise because decisions about vigilance levels require judgments of risk based on the kinds of events that occur only rarely if vigilance is effective. A model providing a framework for studies of vigilance against the risks of infants’ social activities was developed. It recognizes that (1) risk-reducing vigilant behavior can conflict with acquiring information about risk; (2) in social situations where reliable estimates of risk are impossible, individuals might follow rules of thumb (e.g., be restrictive) rather than modify behavior moment by moment according to the current situation;and (3) at the dyad’s optimum balance between vigilance for the current infant and investment in subsequent off-spring, the infant will not be totally protected, so that while dyads at higher risks are more vigilant, the risks are also realized to a greater extent (e.g., itin terms of the number of hits received per encounter).     

Critique of ‘Australopithecus afarensis’ as a single species based on dental metrics and morphology

Leonard andHegmon (1987) compare a series of dental metrics of ‘Australopithecus afarensis Johanson, White, andCoppens, 1978’ with criteria for modern apes, to test the hypothesis that ‘A. afarensis’ represents a single species. They also compare the morphology of the lower third premolar. The dental breadth of ‘A. afarensis’ shows a wide range of variation, particularly in the lower third premolar morphology which displays greater variation than in modern apes—yet the study concludes that the single species hypothesis cannot be rejected. The study is flawed by applying criteria for pongids inappropriate for a hominid. When ‘A. afarensis’ is compared with criteria for hominids, the range of variation in dental size, breadth, and third premolar morphology is greater than that in any hominid species. The single species hypothesis is, therefore, once again rejected. Moreover, the name ‘A. afarensis’ is preoccupied byPraeanthropus africanus (Weinert) and must be dropped.     

Which side of the π-macrocycle plane of (bacterio)chlorophylls is favored for binding of the fifth ligand?

Reported crystallographic data and calculated molecular models indicated that chlorophyll (Chl) a and bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) a tend to bind the fifth ligand on the side of the macrocycle where the C13²-(R)-methoxycarbonyl moiety protrudes (denoting the ‘back’ side). The crystal structures of 34 photosynthetic proteins possessing (B)Chl cofactors revealed that most of Chl a and BChl a (and b) are coordinated by any peptidyl residue (e.g., histydyl-imidazolyl group), peptidyl backbone or water from the ‘back’ side. Almost all the cofactors that bind a water molecule as the fifth ligand in these proteins have a ‘back’ configuration. Theoretical model calculations for methyl chlorophyllide a (MeChlid a) and methyl bacteriochlorophyllide a (MeBChlid a) bound to an imidazole molecule indicated that the ‘back’ side is energetically favored for the ligand binding. These results are consistent with the fact that ethyl chlorophyllide a (EtChlid a) dihydrate crystal consists of the ‘back’ complex. The modeling also showed that both removal and stereochemical inverse of the C13²-methoxycarbonyl group affect the relative stability between the ‘back’ and ‘face’ complexes. The effect of the C13²-moiety on the choice of the macrocycle side for the ligand binding is discussed in relation to the function of P700. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Small plot mating disruption trials for tufted apple bud moth,Platynota idaeusalis, in Pennsylvania apple orchards

Mating disruption treatments for the tufted apple bud moth (TABM),Platynota idaeusalis (Walker), were tested in small plot trials in apple orchards in Pennsylvania. Treatments were evaluated by fruit injury and by capture of male TABM in traps baited with synthetic pheromone sources or virgin females. The TABM pheromone is a two component isomeric blend ofE-11-tetradecen-1-ol (E11-14:OH) andE-11-tetradecenyl acetate (E11-14:Ac). A 50∶50 ratio of these two components was used in standard monitoring septa and in mating disruption treatments released from either hollow fibers (‘fiber’) or PVC tubes (‘PVC’). Other pheromone blends tested included a 90∶10 ratio of E11-14: Ac and E11-14:OH (‘EAc’) and its reverse (‘EOH’), mixture ‘EAc’ with 30% of the Z-isomers (‘low AEc’), and a blend similar to the preceding with 2% Z9-12:Ac (‘generic’). These other blends were released from multi tube tape (‘tape’) or Shin-Etsu type rope (‘rope’) dispensers. Seasonal dispenser release rate in mg ha⁻¹ h⁻¹ was ca. 30 for the ‘rope’ dispensers, 14 for ‘PVC’ and 6 for ‘fiber’. ‘EAc-tape’ and ‘EOH-tape’ were equally effective in reducing catches of males in traps baited with synthetic lures and in traps baited with virgin females. Both treatments also reduced fruit injury. ‘EAc-rope’, ‘fiber’ and ‘PVC’ also were generally effective; whereas, the ‘low EAc’ and ‘generic’ treatments reduced trap capture less than 90% and did not reduce fruit injury. Dispenser density was positively correlated with reduction in trap capture for the ‘low EAc-rope’ and ‘genericrope’ treatments. Traps loaded with ‘fiber’ dispensers captured more male TABM than the other treatments in non-pheromone permeated environments. Trap capture of other tortricids was reduced in pheromone treatments. ‘EAc-rope’ and the ‘TABM’ treatments provided mean (s.e.) percent reduction in trap catch of 99.5 (0.4) and 42.9 (10.1), respectively, for the redbanded leafroller,Argyrotaenia velutinana (Walker), and 90.4 (6.8) and 90.4 (1.3), respectively, for the obliquebanded leafroller,Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris).     

Selection of Highly Informative Microsatellite Markers to Identify Pollen Donors in ‘Hass’ Avocado Orchards

‘Hass’ is the most popular avocado (Persea americana Mill.) cultivar in the world. It has been characterized as a crop requiring cross-pollination. However, the potential extent of self-pollination and the most effective pollen donors (best cross-pollinizing cultivars) have not been determined. In this study, 56 markers were screened against ‘Hass’ and nine commonly used pollinizing cultivars grown in southern California: ‘Bacon,’ ‘Ettinger,’ ‘Fuerte,’ ‘Harvest,’ ‘Lamb Hass,’ ‘Marvel,’ ‘Nobel,’ ‘Sir Prize,’ and ‘Zutano.’ Seventeen microsatellite, i.e., simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, were found to be very promising for paternity analysis. Four highly informative SSR markers were selected to accurately and unequivocally identify pollen parents of ‘Hass’ fruit from an orchard interplanted with these pollinizing cultivars. From 2003 to 2006, 7,984 ‘Hass’ fruit were analyzed for their paternity. Overall, the pollen parents of 99.55% of the analyzed fruit could be unequivocally identified with a single multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Only 36 fruits (<0.45%) required a second PCR reaction to reach unequivocal identification of the pollen parents.     

The Repertoire and Social Function of Facial Displays in Cebus capucinus

Systematic studies on facial displays in capuchins are limited and based mainly on studies of tufted capuchins (Cebus apella). Despite the great social-morphological variability within Cebus suggesting possible morphological and functional variations in the facial displays of different species, no study has considered thoroughly visual communication in the genus. Our aim was to describe the facial displays of white-faced capuchins and to assess their distribution and communicative function. We observed 15 captive white-faced capuchins in the Primate Centre of the Louis Pasteur University of Strasbourg, for a total of 198 h. We described the following facial displays: relaxed open-mouth, lip-smacking, open-mouth threat-face, silent bared-teeth, open-mouth silent bared-teeth, protruded-lip face, and tongue-out. We never observed the scalp-lifting display, one of the most common displays characterizing tufted capuchins. White-faced capuchins use the majority of facial displays in an affiliative or playful context; only the open-mouth threat-face display is associated with aggressive behaviors. White-faced capuchins lack ritualized signals of submission. The fact that in white-faced capuchins the silent bared-teeth display conveys only a positive message, while in tufted capuchins it signals submission as well as affiliation, supports the covariation hypothesis (Thierry 2004 Social epigenesis. In B. Thierry, M. Singh, & W. Kaummans (Eds.), Macaque societies: A Model for the study of social organization, pp. 267–294. Oxford University Press).     

Parasitism ofLeptinotarsa decemlineata [Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae] byEdovum puttleri [Hymenoptera: Eulophidae] in different cultivars of eggplant

Experiments were conducted to quantify parasitism of Colorado potato beetle,Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), by the egg parasitoid,Edovum puttleri Grissell, on 3 different cultivars of eggplant,Solanum melongena L. Levels of parasitism were higher (P<0.05) on ‘Black Pride’ than on other cultivars. The percentage of egg masses that were parasitized was 1.2-fold higher (P<0.05) on ‘Black Pride’ than on ‘Harris Special’ and ‘White’. The number of eggs per mass that were parasitized was 1.3- and 1.4- fold greater (P<0.05) on ‘Black Pride’ than on ‘Harris Special’ and ‘White’, respectively. The percentage of eggs that were parasitized per mass and percentage of emerged adult parasitoids did not differ (P>0.05) among cultivars; between 2.1- to 2.6- fold more females than males emerged from eggs on all cultivars during the growing season.Edovum puttleri suppressed the 2nd generation ofL. decemlineata on ‘Black Pride’ and ‘Harris Special’, but did not suppress populations on ‘White’.      

Long-term study of somatic embryogenesis from anthers and ovaries of 12 grapevine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis</Emphasis> sp.) genotypes

Summary Anthers and ovaries of six grapevine cultivars (three Vitis vinifera L., two V × Labruscana L. H. Bailey, and one complex hybrid) were extracted from flower buds over 2 yr and cultured on three media reported to promote somatic embryogenesis in Vitis tissues. The highest percent embryogenesis from the hybrid ‘Chancellor’ and V. vinifera ‘Chardonnay’, ‘Merlot’, and ‘Pinot Noir’ occurred on medium C [Nitsch and Nitsch, 1969, basal medium with 3.0% (w/v) sucrose, 0.01% (w/v) inositol. 0.3% (w/v) Phytagel, 2.5 μM 2.4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2.5μM β-naphthoxyacetic acid, 5.0μM N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N′-phenylurea, and 0.05% (w/v) glutamine]. Regardless of the media, the labrusca cultivars ‘Concord’ and ‘Niagara’ produced soft non-embryogenic callus that was sometimes mixed with well-developed somatic embryos. Nine vinifera genotypes were further tested for several different years on medium C. Embryogenic cultures suitable for transformation were obtained from all genotypes in more than 1 yr. The average percent embryogenesis from ovaries was 7-fold higher than from anthers. There was significant annual variation in percent embryogenesis, demonstrating the need for media comparisons to be replicated for more than one season. Suspension cultures suitable for use in genetic transformation were initiated from ‘Chardonnay’, ‘Merlot,’ and ‘Pinot Noir’ pro-embryogenic masses. ‘Chardonnay’ suspension cultures plated and grown under conditions developed for recovery of plants after biolistic transformation yielded approximately 500 non-transformed embryos per plate after 4 mo. of culture, with 68.6% of the embryos converting to plants. This is the first reported protocol for embryogenesis from ‘Concord,’ ‘Cabernet Franc,’ and ‘Pinot Noir’ grapevines.     

Control of plant development: Signals from without—Signals from within

The powerful technology for transferring functional foreign genes into plants can only express its potential to the extent that our knowledge about signals and signal transmission in plants improves. In higher plants gene expression is regulated by ‘signals from within’ and ‘signals from without’ (e.g., light). Since light-mediated changes provide the basis for much of plant development, photocontrol of gene expression will mainly be considered. The recently discovered ‘plastidic factor’ will serve as the prototype of an intracellular ‘signal from within’. Particular emphasis will be laid on rapid interorgan signal transmission since these novel observations suggest a revision of the presently held concepts about the means of communication within a plant. It will be concluded in the end that the prevailing views about the nature of plants underestimate the degree of sophistication actually exhibited by higher plants.     

Genetic diversity of globe artichoke landraces from Sicilian small-holdings: implications for evolution and domestication of the species

Globe artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus) is native to the Mediterranean Basin, where it grows in close proximity with its ancestor wild cardoon (C. cardunculus var. sylvestris); its commercial production is mainly based on vegetatively propagated clones which guarantee high yields of marketable product (i.e. immature inflorescence or capitula). A collection of 24 landraces of globe artichoke was made from small-holdings in Sicily, which is assumed to be one of the possible centres of its domestication. These landraces have been cultivated for centuries by local farmers, mainly due to their culinary uniqueness. The collection was characterised for a combination of morphological traits and AFLP, gSSR and cpSSr markers. Molecular analyses included genotypes of wild cardoon collected from different sites in Sicily as well as accessions of the most widely grown Sicilian varietal types: the spiny ‘Spinoso di Palermo’ and the non-spiny ‘Violetto di Sicilia’. The landraces follow a gradient of ‘ennoblement’ towards either the domesticated spiny or the non-spiny types. ‘Cimiciusa di Mazzarino’ was an outlier, in that it resembled the cultivated forms with respect to its AFLP fingerprint, but was more closely related to the wild cardoon on the basis of SSR profile. This particular landrace presents an example of an intermediary form in the domestication process, although it could also have derived from introgression from sympatric wild cardoon, followed by farmer selection. The abundant genetic variation present demonstrates the key role of farmers’ practice in the maintenance of genetic diversity, which should be preserved because of its potential value for plant breeders.     

Response of durum wheat cultivars to immature embryo culture,callus induction and in vitro salt stress

Response of twenty eight cultivars of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum var. durum) to immature embryo culture, callus production and in vitro salt tolerance was evaluated. For assessment of cultivars to salt tolerance, growing morphogenic calli were exposed to different concentrations of NaCl (0, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8 and 2.1% w/v) added to the culture medium during two subsequent subcultures (4 weeks each). Comparison of cultivars for callus induction from immature embryo was based on callus induction frequency and fresh weight growth of callus (FWG). While, for salt tolerance, the relative fresh weight growth (RFWG) and necrosis percent of callus were used. There were significant differences among cultivars for potential of regeneration from immature embryo, and ‘Shahivandi’ a native durum wheat cultivar originating from western Iran was superior among the cultivars tested. The FWG distinguished cultivars more than callus induction frequency did for callus induction evaluation. Hence, a range of FWG from 1.23 to 14.65 g was observed in ‘Mexical-75’ and ‘Omrabi-5’ cultivars, respectively. Growing calli derived from cultivars ‘PI 40100’ and ‘Dipper-6’ showed superiority for tolerating salinity under in vitro conditions. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

AFLP analysis of nephthytis (Syngonium podophyllum Schott) selected from somaclonal variants

This study analyzed genetic differences of 19 cultivars selected from somaclonal variants of Syngonium podophyllum Schott along with their parents as well as seven additional Syngonium species and six other aroids using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers generated by 12 primer sets. Among the 19 somaclonal cultivars, ‘Pink Allusion’ was selected from ‘White Butterfly’. Tissue culture of ‘Pink Allusion’ through organogenesis resulted in the development of 13 additional cultivars. Self-pollination of ‘Pink Allusion’ obtained a cultivar, ‘Regina Red Allusion’, and tissue culture propagation of ‘Regina Red Allusion’ led to the release of five other cultivars. The 12 primer sets generated a total of 1,583 scorable fragments from all accessions, of which 1,284 were polymorphic (81.9%). The percentages of polymorphic fragments within ‘White Butterfly’ and ‘Regina Red Allusion’ groups, however, were only 1.2% and 0.4%, respectively. Jaccard's similarity coefficients among somaclonal cultivars derived from ‘White Butterfly’ and ‘Regina Red Allusion’, on average, were 0.98 and 0.99, respectively. Seven out of the 15 cultivars from the ‘White Butterfly’ group and three out of six from the ‘Regina Red Allusion’ group were clearly distinguished by AFLP analysis as unique fragments were associated with respective cultivars. The unsuccessful attempt to distinguish the remaining eight cultivars from the ‘White Butterfly’ group and three from the ‘Regina Red Allusion’ group was not attributed to experimental errors or the number of primer sets used; rather it is hypothesized to be caused by DNA methylation and/or some rare mutations. This study also calls for increased genetic diversity of cultivated Syngonium as they are largely derived from somaclonal variants.     

Chemical and physical-chemical characteristics of dietary fibres from Ulva lactuca (L.) Thuret and Enteromorpha compressa (L.) Grev.

Dietary fibres from Ulva lactuca (L.) Thuret (sea lettuce) and Enteromorpha compressa (L.) Grev. (A.O. nori) were measured according to a ‘standard’ method and a ‘physiological’ protocol simulating the gastric and intestinal environments. U. lactuca contained 15.8–8.0% soluble and 24.2–32.6% insoluble fibres according to the ‘standard’ and ‘physiological’ methods, respectively. For E. compressa, these values were 14.9–15.9 and 21.6–28.7%, respectively. For both algae, the composition suggests that the soluble fibres were xylorhamnoglycuronans sulphates and insoluble fibres were essentially composed of glucans. No marked chemical compositional variation was observed between soluble fractions extracted under the simulated gastric and intestinal conditions. Fibres in both algae are hydrophilic but the water holding capacities were higher after extraction of soluble fibres (5.5–9.5 g g⁻¹ for the dry algae; 14.0–16.0 g g⁻¹ for the standard insoluble fibres). Water soluble fibres demonstrated low intrinsic viscosities at 37 °C in buffers, particularly those from E. compressa (36.0–36.5 ml g⁻¹), and was affected by pH for those of U. lactuca (147.5 ml g⁻¹ at pH 3.0 and 175.0 ml g⁻¹ at pH 7.3).     

Characterization,Ecological Status and Type-specific Reference Conditions of Surface Water Bodies in Wallonia (Belgium) using Biocenotic Metrics based on Benthic Invertebrate Communities

The river types in Wallonia (Belgium) were defined according to the system B of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) taking into account obligatory and optional factors synthesized in three criteria: ‘size’, ‘slope’ and ‘natural region’. Under the hypothesis that benthic invertebrate assemblages would be specialized according to river type, a set of 627 faunal samples originating from an 11-year sampling period was tested to characterize river types with faunal assemblages. A multivariate approach led to gather 23 river types into seven groups exhibiting similar faunal assemblages. Using biocenotic metrics based on benthic invertebrate assemblages (e.g., the French standard IBGN), type-specific reference conditions and ecological status class limits were defined for each ‘natural’ river type group. Ecological potential was defined for heavily modified and for artificial (i.e., man-made canals) types. An ‘ecological status’ evaluation strategy was therefore developed and applied in the southern – and more natural – part of Wallonia, where many reference sites were available. In the northern part of Wallonia (i.e., the ‘Loess region’) where no high quality site was available, the expert judgement took a larger part in the definition of the reference conditions and of the ecological status class limits, in addition to the calculations. Two independent distribution gradients of taxa assemblages resulted from multivariate ordination: a first ‘saprobity axis’, as the taxa-sensitivity to organic contamination was increasing from ‘very resistant’ taxa (mainly located in the ‘Loess region’) to ‘sensitive’ and ‘very sensitive’ taxa (from the river types belonging to the Condroz, the Famenne, the Arden and the Jurassic regions) and a second axis characterizing the Meuse-specific faunal assemblage, gathering exotic species and typical limnophilous taxa of large heavily modified rivers. The ecological status monitoring management system developed in this study – i.e., the definition of faunal river type groups, related reference conditions and ecological status class limits – represents a proposal to be integrated in the ecological status assessment of biological elements for the implementation of the WFD and was tested in Wallonia. For the period 2000–2002 involving 349 different sites, the element ‘benthic invertebrate fauna’ was in that way classified ‘high status’ for 31.5% of sites, ‘good status’ for 31.5% and below ‘good status’ for 37% of sites. The best ecological status (i.e., 100% ‘high’ and ‘good’ status) was found in river type ‘Arden’s xenotrophic brooks with strong slope’ and in river types 8large rivers with medium slope’. The worst status was found in river types ‘Loess brooks and rivers with medium slope’.     

Development of SCAR markers linked to self-incompatibility in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica napus</Emphasis> L.

‘SI1300’ is a self-incompatible Brassica napus line generated by introgressing an S haplotype from B. rapa ‘Xishuibai’ into a rapeseed cultivar ‘Huayou No. 1’. Five S-locus specific primer pairs were employed to develop cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences (CAPS) markers linked the S haplotype of ‘SI1300’. Two segregating populations (F₂ and BC₁) from the cross between ‘SI1300’ and self-compatible European spring cultivar ‘Defender’, were generated to verify the molecular markers. CAPS analysis revealed no desirable polymorphism between self-incompatible and self-compatible plants. Twenty primer pairs were designed based on the homology-based candidate gene method, and six dominant sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) markers linked with the S-locus were developed. Of the six markers, three were derived from the SRK and SP11 alleles of class II B. rapa S haplotypes and linked with S haplotype of ‘SI1300’. The other three markers were designed from the SLG-A10 and co-segregated with S haplotype of ‘Defender’. We successfully combined two pairs of them and characterized two multiplex PCR markers which could discriminate the homozygous and heterozygous genotypes. These markers were further validated in 24 F₃ and 22 BC₁F₂ lines of ‘SI1300 × Defender’ and another two segregating populations from the cross ‘SI1300 × Yu No. 9’. Nucleotide sequences of fragments linked with S-locus of ‘SI1300’ showed 99% identity to B. rapa class II S-60 haplotype, and fragments from ‘Defender’ were 97% and 94% identical to SLG and SRK of B. rapa class I S-47 haplotype, respectively. ‘SI1300’ was considered to carry two class II S haplotypes and the S haplotype on the A-genome derived from B. rapa ‘Xishuibai’ determines the SI phenotype, while ‘Defender’ carry a class I S haplotype derived from B. rapa and a class II S haplotype from B. oleracea. SCAR markers developed in this study will be helpful for improving SI lines and accelerating marker-assisted selection process in rapeseed SI hybrid breeding program.     

Alternate bearing influences annual nutrient consumption and the total nutrient content of mature pistachio trees

The influence of alternate bearing on nutrient utilization and total tree nutrient content was investigated in mature pistachio (Pistacia vera L. cv Kerman trees). Removal of N, P and Zn in fruit and abscised leaves of cropping (‘on’) trees averaged 5, 6, and 2 times, respectively, the removal in abscised leaflets of the non-fruiting, ‘off’ year trees. One hundred and thirty-five kg N, 131 kg K, 86 kg Ca, 39 kg Mg and 18 kg P per hectare were removed in fruits and abscised leaves in ‘on’ year trees. Tree nutrient contents and, presumably, the size of nutrient storage pools in dormant trees varied between ‘on’ and ‘off’ years. There was 22% and 14% more N and P, respectively, in dormant trees following ‘off’ than ‘on’ years. The greater N and P accumulation in ‘off’ year trees is depleted in support of the large fruit demand for N and P during ‘on’ years. In contrast to N and P, there was greater K and Ca accumulation in perennial tree parts during ‘on’ years than during ‘off’ years. The greater K accumulation in perennial tree parts and approximately 30% greater removal of K in annual organs during ‘on’ than ‘off’ years suggests that K uptake could be 4 times higher in ‘on’ year trees than in (non-cropping), ‘off’ year trees.     

In vitro and in vivo anti-allergic effects of ‘benifuuki’ green tea containing O-methylated catechin and ginger extract enhancement

‘Benifuuki’, a tea (Camellia Sinensis L.) cultivar in Japan, is rich in anti-allergic epigallocatechin-3-O-(3-O-methyl) gallate (EGCG3″Me). ‘Benifuuki’ green tea and simultaneous addition of ginger extract remarkably suppressed cytokine (TNF-α and MIP-1α) secretion from mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells after antigen stimulation and, as expected, suppressed delay-type allergy. After drinking ‘benifuuki’ green tea containing 43.5 mg of EGCG and 8.5 mg of EGCG3″Me, the AUC (area under the drug concentration time curve; min μg/ml) of EGCG was 6.72 ± 2.87 and EGCG3″Me was 8.48 ± 2.54 in healthy human volunteers. Though the dose of EGCG was 5.1 times the dose of EGCG3″Me, the AUC of EGCG3″Me was higher than that of EGCG. A double blind clinical study on subjects with Japanese cedar pollinosis was carried out. At the 11th week after starting the study, in the most severe cedar pollen scattering period, symptoms, i.e., blowing the nose and itching eyes, were significantly relieved in the ‘benifuuki’ intake group compared with the placebo group, and blowing the nose, itching eyes and nasal symptom score, and at the 11th and 13th weeks, stuffy nose, throat pain and the nasal symptom medication score were significantly relieved in the ‘benifuuki’ containing ginger extract group compared with the placebo group. These results suggested that over one consecutive month, drinking ‘benifuuki’ green tea was useful to reduce some of the symptoms from Japanese cedar pollinosis, and did not affect any normal immune response in subjects with seasonal rhinitis, and the ginger extract enhanced the effect of ‘benifuuki’ green tea.