Cadmium removal capacities of filamentous soil fungi isolated from industrially polluted sediments,in La Plata (Argentina)

Aspergillus terreus, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Fusarium oxysporum, Gliocladium roseum, Penicillium spp., Talaromyces helicus and Trichoderma koningii were isolated from heavily polluted streams near an industrial area in La Plata, Argentina. The fungi were obtained from sediments with 0.25–0.50 mg Cd/l and they were isolated in cadmium-basal medium. They were then cultivated to evaluate their Cd detoxification abilities. The biomass developed in static assays represented 5–53% of the yield of stirred cultures, for the different fungal species, although the cadmium absorption were similar in both cases. These soil fungi represented 50% of the total isolates and their mycelial growth was conspicuous in these polluted sediments. Although bacteria have been mentioned as active microorganisms against heavy metals, the mycelial fungi were able to develop a significantly higher mass to sequestrate more metals. Thus, they could be used in remediation biotechnology to improve the Cd detoxification of chronically contaminated habitats.     

Xerotolerant Cladosporium sphaerospermum Are Predominant on Indoor Surfaces Compared to Other Cladosporium Species

Indoor fungi are a major cause of cosmetic and structural damage of buildings worldwide and prolonged exposure of these fungi poses a health risk. Aspergillus, Penicillium and Cladosporium species are the most predominant fungi in indoor environments. Cladosporium species predominate under ambient conditions. A total of 123 Cladosporium isolates originating from indoor air and indoor surfaces of archives, industrial factories, laboratories, and other buildings from four continents were identified by sequencing the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and a part of the translation elongation factor 1α gene (TEF) and actin gene (ACT). Species from the Cladosporium sphaerospermum species complex were most predominant representing 44.7% of all isolates, while the Cladosporium cladosporioides and Cladosporium herbarum species complexes represented 33.3% and 22.0%, respectively. The contribution of the C. sphaerospermum species complex was 23.1% and 58.2% in the indoor air and isolates from indoor surfaces, respectively. Isolates from this species complex showed growth at lower water activity (≥ 0.82) when compared to species from the C. cladosporioides and C. herbarum species complexes (≥ 0.85). Together, these data indicate that xerotolerance provide the C. sphaerospermum species complex advantage in colonizing indoor surfaces. As a consequence, C. sphaerospermum are proposed to be the most predominant fungus at these locations under ambient conditions. Findings are discussed in relation to the specificity of allergy test, as the current species of Cladosporium used to develop these tests are not the predominant indoor species.     

Incidence of allergenically significant fungal aerosol in a rural bakery of West Bengal,India

The frequency of fungal spores in the air of three different sections of a rural bakery was analyzed using a Burkard personal slide sampler and Andersen two stage viable sampler. In average concentration of spores (No./m³) was 228–26770/m³ and concentration of viable colony forming units (CFU/m³) was 65-2061 CFU/m³. Dominant fungus species both culturable and nonculturable, were species of Aspergillus and Penicillium, Cladosporiumsp., Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Penicillium citrinum and Alternaria alternata. Seasonal variations in the spore concentrations were clearly observed in case of some fungi. Total culturable mould concentration of different bakery sections sometimes exceeded the acceptable limit for a healthy indoor environment. Antigenic extracts prepared from some dominant culturable fungi showed high level of allergenicity in skin prick tests indicating that they could be responsible for allergic respiratory dysfunction of bakery workers.This revised version was published online in October 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The potential effect of high atmospheric CO2 on soil fungi–invertebrate interactions

Litter mixtures of four meadow plant species, Cardamine hirsuta, Poa annua, Senecio vulgaris, and Spergula arvensis, were produced from laboratory model terrestrial ecosystems maintained at either ambient or enriched (ambient + 200 µmol mol^?1) CO₂ concentrations. The effect of litter source on the oviposition attractivity of fungi to the sciarid fly Lycoriella ingenua was tested for seven fungal species (Absidia glauca, Cladosporium cladosporioides, C. herbarum, Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium arenicola, P. chrysogenum, and P. janthinellum). For all species, except F. oxysporum, oviposition attractivity increased when the fungi were growing on litter derived from CO₂‐enriched environments. The relative increase of the oviposition attractiveness of fungi growing on CO₂‐enriched litter differed substantially and resulted in a shift in sciarid fly oviposition preference. For example, when P. chrysogenum and C. herbarum grew on ambient litter, P. chrysogenum was more attractive; the opposite was true for mycelia growing on enriched litter. The effect of litter source on the suitability of four fungal species for larval development was also tested. In two species of fungi (A. glauca and C. herbarum) suitability was significantly higher if growing on CO₂‐enriched litter. With P. chrysogenum the opposite was true. The consequences of these rarely considered CO₂‐induced trophic interactions on ecosystem processes such as nutrient feedback cycles between plants and soil decomposition are considered.     

A comparative study of endophytic and epiphytic fungal association with leaf of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus citriodora</Emphasis> Hook., and their antimicrobial activity

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook, is frequently cultivated tree in India for its wood and medicinal usages. The endophytic and epiphytic fungi were estimated from healthy leaves of E. citriodora growing in the premise of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. A total of 33 fungal species were isolated from leaf segments. Of 33 taxa, 20 were recorded as endophytes, while 22 as epiphytes. Nine, out of 33 species were found to be common in leaf tissues and surfaces (Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus fumigatus, A. terreus, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Drechslera rostrata, Humicola grisea, Nigrospora oryzae, Penicillium cristata, and Pestalotia sp.). Out of 478 fungal isolates, 279 were epiphytic while only 199 were endophytic. Most isolates were anamorphic filamentous fungi which often don’t produce sexual spores. The Sorensen’s index of similarity between endophytes and epiphytes (leaf surface colonizers) was found to be at 0.300. Diversity index of fungal species was higher in endophytes than epiphytes. The frequency of colonization differs greatly in both myco-populations. Cladosporium cladosporioides (26%) was dominant species on leaf surfaces while Botrytis cinerea (10.5%) was dominant in leaf tissues. Out of 16 endophytic isolates evaluated for antagonistic test, 8 (50%) gave the antagonistic activity against variety of fungi representing pathogens to both humans and plants.     

Detection of viable fungal spores contaminant on documents and rapid control of the effectiveness of an ethylene oxide disinfection using ATP assay

Filamentous fungi are able to damage and even destroy archival and library materials. Nowadays the conventional method for detecting such micro‐organisms is to put them in cultures but such methods are laborious and time‐consuming. ATP methodology has been widely applied in other domains and its success on bacteria and yeast has been demonstrated. Several commercial reagent kits are available but they did not give satisfactory results on spores mould. We have elaborated new extraction strategies specific to fungi. A comparison of 42 extraction protocols of ATP from fungal spores was carried out. Extraction at 100°C with DMSO 90% in a Tris–acetate–EDTA buffer proved to be the best method. The viability of cells is estimated by the determination of adenylate energy charge (EC). We applied our method successfully on well‐known species such as Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. fumigatus, A. versicolor, Neosartorya fischeri, Eurotium chevalieri, Penicillium chrysogenum, Chaetomium globosum and Ulocladium spp. The results suggest that the ATP bioluminescence assay provides a sensitive and time‐saving method for detecting viable fungal spores. The validity of the procedure was also tested on spores killed by steam and on spores treated with ethylene oxide. We showed that EC determination could be used for a rapid control of the effectiveness of a disinfection process performed with ethylene oxide. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The broad-scale distribution of microfungi in the Windmill Islands region, continental Antarctica

Microfungi were isolated from soils, mosses, algae and lichens in the Windmill Islands region of Antarctica. From a total of 1,228 isolates, 22 genera were identified. The most frequently isolated fungi from mosses were Mycelia sterilia (47% of total isolates), Phoma spp. (18%), Penicillium spp. (11%), Chrysosporium spp. (7%) and Thelebolus microsporus (6%). Mycelia sterilia, Penicillium spp., Mortierella spp., Chrysosporium cf. pannorum and Thelebolus microsporus were also frequently isolated from algae. Fungal distribution and diversity were poor in samples of lichens, compared to samples from mosses and algae. The frequency of occurrence of microfungi was most often associated with strong biotic influence. There was a marked increase in fungal diversity in human-disturbed sites. Twelve taxa were restricted to soils from near the Australian Casey Station, suggesting significant introduction of fungi into this environment by human activities. Away from the station, fungal distribution appeared to be related to substrata and nutrient status rather than dispersal opportunities. Suggestions for future research and the need for constant monitoring to clarify the role of human disturbance on Antarctic fungi are discussed. Received: 1 April 1997 / Accepted: 17 August 1997     

Keratinophilic fungi isolated from antarctic soil

In the present study, 10 soil samples were collected aseptically from an equal number of areas of the Antarctic in the zone occupied by the 1986–1987 Italian expedition for research on keratinophilic fungi.Of particular interest was the isolation of a pathogenic fungus, Microsporum gypseum, from two sites in the base camp occupied by men and by skuas. Trichophyton terrestre was isolated from a site in which people worked and through which penguins and skuas passed.The most widespread fungal species were members of the genus Chrysosporium. Some of these species were isolated but not identified and this part of the study was still be completed.Another significant finding was the absence of fungi in one sample, while in another the widespread and abundant growth in all the seeded dishes of a single species of Chrysosporium.Other species in genera of general diffusion in many environments were also isolated : Aspergillus spp., Malbranchea sp., Mycelia sterilia spp., Paecilomyces sp., Penicillium spp. and Scopulariopsis spp.     

Small mammal mycophagy in hemiboreal forest communities of Lithuania

The diets of small mammals in different hemiboreal spruce-dominated, oak-dominated and mixed forests in western part of Lithuania were studied by examination of fungal spores in fresh fecal pellets of caught animals. In the diets of mice (Apodemus spp.), bank voles (Myodes glareolus), and common and pygmy shrews (Sorex araneus and S. minutus), 22 different fungal taxa were identified, 15 of which were hypogeous fungi. The sporocarp abundance and the spores in fecal samples of Elaphomyces fungi prevailed in study area during this investigation. Although most of the captured individuals consumed fungi, the consumption varied among small mammal species. The data show that the fungi were more frequent and taxonomically diverse in Myodes glareolus than in Apodemus spp. diets. The study provided evidence that the fungal component in the diets of insectivorous Sorex species is more diverse than previously known. The availability of sporocarps and the fungal component in the diets of small mammals showed seasonal effects. Annual hypogeous and epigeous sporocarp abundances did not vary significantly across forest types. The significant difference in mycophagy was observed across all forest cover types, with the greatest fungal diversity in fecal samples collected in mixed coniferous-deciduous tree stands.     

A viscometric study of the biodegradation of photographic gelatin by fungi isolated from cinematographic films

The biodegradation of photographic gelatin grade (Bloom 225) material was studied by viscometry in aqueous solution (at 37 °C, 6.67% w/w) using filamentous fungi isolated and identified from cinematographic film stored in different Spanish archives. From viscosity data, different variables such as molecular weight and chain scission were calculated. To ensure initial spore suspension concentration was standardized for all the biodegradation experiments, a correlation between transmittance at 530 nm of fungal spore suspensions and the corresponding cytometric determination of populations was established for all the fungal strains studied in this work. The bioassay experiments were carried out at 25 and 4 °C using an initial concentration of fungi of 4.5×10⁵ conidia/mL except in the case of the genus Alternaria, where the concentration was 10 times lower. The fungal strains were three species of Aspergillus, i.e., A .ustus, A. nidulans var. nidulans, A. versicolor, seven Penicillium chrysogenum strains, and Cladosporium cladosporioides, Alternaria alternata, Mucor racemosus, Phoma glomerata, and Trichoderma longibrachiatum. All were gelatinase positive. Through the viscosity decay profiles with bioassay-time and the corresponding calculated chain scission, the relative quantitative gelatinase efficiency of these fungi has been evaluated.     

A study of the fungi occurring on 15th century frescoes in Florence,Italy

The role of fungi in the biodeterioration of frescoes has been investigated by means of transparent adhesive tape and by swabbing the surface of selected areas as well as by a study of the materials used in restoration. In the Ognissanti church at Florence a large fungal population was found on two 15th century frescoes, one by Botticelli of ‘St Augustine’ and the other by Ghirlandaio of ‘St Jerome’. Twenty-three species were identified, 15 on the Botticelli where the majority of the colony forming units (cfu) were Penicillium brevi-compactum Dierckx (61%) and P. purpurogenum Stoll (18%), and 13 on the Ghirlandaio where Aspergillus versicolor (Vuill.) Tiraboschi was the most common (74%), together with Cladosporium sphaerospermum Penz. (22%). The materials often used in restoration namely calcium caseinate, masonite and animal glue were tested and found to be suitable substrates for species of Aspergillus and Penicillium but not for Cladosporium cladosporioides and C. sphaerospermum.     

Airborne pollen and fungal spores in Garki,Abuja (North-Central Nigeria)

The ambient atmosphere is dominated with pollen and spores, which trigger allergic reactions and diseases and impact negatively on human health. A survey of pollen and fungal spores constituents of the atmosphere of Garki, Abuja (North-Central Nigeria) was carried out for 1 year (June 1, 2011–May 31, 2012). The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence and abundance of pollen and fungal spores in the atmosphere and their relationship with meteorological parameters. Airborne samples were trapped using modified Tauber-like pollen trap, and the recipient solutions were subjected to acetolysis. Results revealed the abundance of fungal spores, pollen, fern spores, algal cysts and diatoms in decreasing order of dominance. The atmosphere was qualitatively and quantitatively dominated by pollen during the period of late rainy/harmattan season than the rainy season. Numerous fungal spores were trapped throughout the sampling periods among which Alternaria spp., Fusarium spp., Cladosporium spp. and Curvularia spp. dominated. These fungi have been implicated in allergic diseases and are dermatophytic, causing diverse skin diseases. Other pathogenic fungi found in the studied aeroflora were Dreschlera spp., Helminthosporium spp., Torula spp., Pithomyces spp., Tetraploa spp., Nigrospora ssp., Spadicoides spp., Puccinia spp. and Erysiphe graminis. Total pollen and fungal spores counts do not show significant correlation with meteorological parameters.     

The effect of meteorological factors on the daily variation of airborne fungal spores in Granada (southern Spain)

A study was made of the link between climatic factors and the daily content of certain fungal spores in the atmosphere of the city of Granada in 1994. Sampling was carried out with a Burkard 7-day-recording spore trap. The spores analysed corresponded to the taxa Alternaria, Ustilago and Cladosporium, with two morphologically different spore types in the latter genus, cladosporioides and herbarum. These spores were selected both for their allergenic capacity and for the high level of their presence in the atmosphere, particularly during the spring and autumn. The spores of Cladosporium were the most abundant (93.82% of the total spores identified). The Spearman correlation coefficients between the spore concentrations studied and the meteorological parameters show different indices depending on the taxon being analysed. Alternaria and Cladosporium are significantly correlated with temperature and hours of sunlight, while Ustilago shows positive correlation indices with relative humidity and negative indices with wind speed. Received: 16 April 1998 / Revised: 27 September 1999 / Accepted: 27 October 1999     

Preliminary survey of indoor and outdoor airborne microfungi at coastal buildings in Egypt

Forty six species and two sterile fungi and yeast species were isolated from samples collected both indoors and outdoors of coastal buildings located in an Egyptian coastal city. Twenty flats from ten buildings were investigated; children living in these buildings have been reported to suffer from respiratory illnesses. Samples were taken using a New Brunswick sampler (model STA-101) operating for 3.0 min at a flow rate of 6.0 l/min. Most of the species isolated have been associated with symptoms of respiratory allergies. Indoors the total culturable fungal count was 1548 CFU/m³; outdoors, it was 1452 CFU/m³. Indoor values of culturable fungal count, total spores count and ergosterol content ranged from 52 to 124 CFU/m³, 100 to 400 spore/m³ and 5 to 27.7 mg/m³, respectively, whereas outdoor levels typically varied between 25 and 222 CFU/m³, 110 and 900 spore/m³ and 3.3 and 67.2 mg/m³, respectively. The maxima for these parameters were detected indoors in house no. 6 and outdoors, outside of house no. 7. The most abundant species were primarily mitosporic (2832 CFU/m³). The most frequent species in both the indoor and outdoor samples were Cladosporium cladosporioides followed by Alternaria alternata and Penicillium chrysogenum,with inside:outside ratios of 1.4, 1.8 and 1.9, respectively. The patterns of fungal abundance were influenced to some extent by changes in the relative humidity and temperature. Other factors, such as type of culture media, rate of sedimentation, size, survival rates of spore and species competition,also affected fungal counts and should be taken into consideration during any analysis of bioaerosol data.     

Vegetation: A source of air fungal bio-contaminant

Airborne fungal counts and types were examined in three selected regions in Egypt. Two of the sampling sites are rural areas, one cultivated with chamomile and the second with vegetable. The third site is located in an urban area. A sedimentation method was used to isolate airborne fungal spores. Airborne fungal spore counts averaged 71\pm 19, 64\pm 14 and 175\pm 79 cfu/p/h in the urban, vegetable and chamomile growing areas, respectively. A total of 1486 fungal colonies belonging to 32 genera were identified. Alternaria (7.5–59.9%), Aspergillus (11.2–38.9%), Penicillium (9.5–15%) and Cladosporium (7.78–17.5%) were the predominant fungal genera found in all sampling sites. Alternaria (42–59.9%) and Aspergillus (38.9%) were the common fungal genera in the cultivated and urban areas, respectively. Vegetation is considered the main source of Alternaria, whereas Aspergillus, Penicillium and Cladosporium are related to local microenvironments and urbanization. Acremonium, Aureobasidium, Botrytis, Beauveria, Chlamydomyces, Chalara, Curvularia, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Trichothecium, Oidiodendron, Scopulariopsis, Spicaria, Stachybotrys chartarum, Torula and Thamnidium, were only detected in low percentages (0.11–1.8%) in the cultivated areas. Vegetation adds different fungal types into the air and their numbers vary according to vegetation type and weather conditions. Airborne fungal counts increased with temperature and decreased with rainfall and relative humidity. Airborne fungal spores have many implications in the spread of human and plant diseases. The presence of fungal spores in air, in spite of their counts, may raise arguments about their role in health complaints in a particular region, „i.e., the fungal concentration may be low but the predominant aeroallergen may be dangerous”.     

Glomalean mycorrhizal fungi from tropical Australia

 A comparison of different methods for isolation of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi into open-pot cultures was undertaken as part of a study of the diversity of these fungi. Four different isolation techniques using spores separated from soil, soil trap cultures, root samples, or transplanted seedlings grown in intact soil cores were used to obtain as many fungi as possible from each site. Isolation methods were compared using paired samples from the same locations within natural (savanna, rocky hill, wetland, rainforest) and disturbed (minesite) habitats in a seasonally dry tropical region in the Northern Territory of Australia. There were large differences in (i) the efficiency (rate of increase in mycorrhizal colonisation), (ii) the proportion of successful cultures, (iii) fungal diversity (number of fungal species in each culture) and (iv) specificity (identity of species isolated) between these four procedures. However, the less-efficient procedures generally resulted in a higher proportion of cultures of one fungus, which could be used without further isolation steps. Most species of Scutellospora, Acaulospora and Gigaspora were obtained primarily from field-collected spores, but only 50% of these culture attempts were successful. Spores from these initial cultures produced mycorrhizas much more rapidly and successfully when used to start second-generation cultures. Several species of fungi, rarely recovered as living spores from field soils, were dominant in many trap cultures started from soil or roots. Most of these fungi were Glomus species, that were first distinguished by colonisation patterns in roots and eventually identified after sporulation in second- or third-generation trap cultures. These experiments demonstrated that glomalean fungi in the habitats sampled belonged to two functional categories, based on whether or not spores were important propagules. The "non-sporulating" fungi were dominant in many trap cultures, which suggests that these fungi had higher total inoculum levels in soils than other fungi. Pot-culturing methods provided additional information on fungal diversity which complemented spore occurrence data obtained using the same soil samples and provided valuable new information about the biology of these fungi. Accepted: 26 December 1998     

Arbuscular fungi and mycorrhizae (Glomales) of the Hel Peninsula,Poland

In the years 1985–1989, the occurrence of arbuscular fungi and mycorrhizae on the Hel Peninsula (Poland) was investigated with the help of 45 soil and root samples collected under 20 plant species of eight families. Except for Zea mays, the other plant species were from uncultivated sites. All soil samples contained spores of arbuscular fungi, of which about 45% were of the genus Glomus. Acaulospora spp. preferred members of the Cupressaceae. Spores of Gigaspora occurred rarely and only in two plant families. Glomus spp. were most frequently associated with plants of the Rosaceae, and species of Scutellospora were found at markedly higher frequencies among roots of plants of the Gramineae and Cupressaceae. A total of 29 spore-forming species and Glomus tenue (a fungus recognizable by its distinctive infections) were found. The most frequently recovered fungus, Glomus tenue, was present in roots of 56.8% of examined plants. Of the spore-forming fungi, the most frequently isolated spores were those of Scutellospora dipurpurascens, then Glomus constrictum, Acaulospora 61, and Glomus microcarpum. The overall spore density in examined samples averaged 99.8 in 100 g dry soil in the range 1 to 547, and was highest in a sample taken from around roots of Festuca arundinacea. The dominant fungi forming spores in sampled soils were Glomus constrictum, Glomus microcarpum, and Scutellospora dipurpurascens. The average species density was 3.9 in 100 g dry soil in the range 1 to 10, and was highest in Corynephorus canescens, Rosa canina, and Thuja occidentalis. Levels of colonization by arbuscular fungi ranged from 0.0 to94.0% (mean 23.3%) of the root length and were highest in Festuca arundinaceae and Zea mays.     

Potential impact of climate change on fungal distributions: analysis of 2 years of contrasting weather in the UK

The impact of climate change on fungal growth and spore production is less well documented than for allergenic pollen grains, although similar implications for respiratory tract diseases in humans occur. Fungal spores are commonly described as either “dry” or “wet” according to the type of weather associated with their occurrence in the air. This study examined the distribution of selected fungal spores (Alternaria spp., Cladosporium spp., Didymella spp., Epicoccum spp., Leptosphaeria spp. and rusts) occurring in the West Midlands of UK during 2 years of contrasting weather. Spore specimens were collected using a 7-day volumetric air sampler and then analysed with the aid of light microscopy. Distributions of spores were then studied using normality tests and Mann–Whitney U test, while relationships with meteorological parameters were investigated using Spearman’s rank test and angular-linear correlation for wind direction analysis. Our results showed that so-called wet spores were more sensitive to the weather changes showing statistically significant differences between the 2 years of study, in contrast to “dry” spores. We predict that in following years we will observe accelerated levels in allergenic fungal spore production as well as changes in species diversity. This study could be a starting point to revise the grouping system of fungal spores as either “dry” or “wet” types and their response to climate change.     

Vertical transmission of fungal endophytes is widespread in forbs

To date, it has been thought that endophytic fungi in forbs infect the leaves of their hosts most commonly by air‐borne spores (termed “horizontal transmission”). Here, we show that vertical transmission from mother plant to offspring, via seeds, occurs in six forb species (Centaurea cyanus, C. nigra, Papaver rhoeas, Plantago lanceolata, Rumex acetosa, and Senecio vulgaris), suggesting that this may be a widespread phenomenon. Mature seeds were collected from field‐grown plants and endophytes isolated from these, and from subsequent cotyledons and true leaves of seedlings, grown in sterile conditions. Most seeds contain one species of fungus, although the identity of the endophyte differs between plant species. Strong evidence for vertical transmission was found for two endophyte species, Alternaria alternata and Cladosporium sphaerospermum. These fungi were recovered from within seeds, cotyledons, and true leaves, although the plant species they were associated with differed. Vertical transmission appears to be an imperfect process, and germination seems to present a bottleneck for fungal growth. We also found that A. alternata and C. sphaerospermum occur on, and within pollen grains, showing that endophyte transmission can be both within and between plant generations. Fungal growth with the pollen tube is likely to be the way in which endophytes enter the developing seed. The fact that true vertical transmission seems common suggests a more mutualistic association between these fungi and their hosts than has previously been thought, and possession of endophytes by seedling plants could have far‐reaching ecological consequences. Seedlings may have different growth rates and be better protected against herbivores and pathogens, dependent on the fungi that were present in the mother plant. This would represent a novel case of trans‐generational resistance in plants.     

Status of airborne spores and pollen in a coir factory in Kerala,India

The prevalence of airborne fungal spores and pollen grains in the indoor and outdoor environments of a coir factory in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala state, India was studied using the Burkard Personal Sampler and the Andersen 2-stage Sampler for 2 years (September 1997 to August 1999). The concentration of pollen grains was remarkably lower than that of fungal spores (ratio of 1:28). There was no large difference in the concentrations and types of fungal spores between the indoor and outdoor environments, with 26 spore types found to be present indoors and 27 types outdoors; of these, 22 were common to both the environments. Aspergillus/Penicillium, Cladosporium, ‘other basidiospores’ and ascospores were the dominant spore types. The total spore concentration was highest in February and lowest in September, and it was significantly higher in 1998–1999 than in 1997–1998. Twenty viable colony-forming types were isolated from inside the coir factory. The most dominant viable fungi isolated were Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger. The total pollen concentration was higher in the outdoor environment of the coir factory than indoors, with 15 and 17 pollen types, respectively. Grass and Cocos nucifera pollen types were dominant. The dominant spore and pollen types trapped in the two environments of the coir factory are reportedly allergenic and, consequently, workers are at risk of catching respiratory/allergic diseases.