Explanatory factors for household involvement in illegal bushmeat hunting around Serengeti,Tanzania

Bushmeat hunting, i.e., the hunting of wildlife for consumption, is a widespread and well-researched phenomenon. Here, we add to the literature on the factors that explain household engagement in hunting by asking how situational factors (such as distance from potential hunting grounds) and household-related variables both at the individual and at the social level (such as perceptions of law enforcement, relative wealth and ethnic background) are related to hunting activities.However, bushmeat hunting is inherently challenging to investigate as it is usually illegal. In this study, conducted in western Serengeti, Tanzania (n = 196 households in 12 villages), we used a variable that can be (and sometimes indeed is) incorporated in dietary recall surveys. This variable elicited the provenance of the bushmeat consumed, thereby avoiding direct statements about hunting activities. Counts of bushmeat sourced from household members were interpreted as a proxy for household engagement in hunting.In a binomial generalised linear model, perceived own relative wealth, perceived effectiveness of law enforcement, distance from the nearest protected area and ethnicity all significantly explained variation in counts of home-sourced bushmeat over 10 months. Our approach is useful for investigating changes in perceptions of household wealth and law enforcement and their effects on hunting over time, and could contribute substantially to a better understanding of the dynamics of hunting in response to conservation and development interventions.     

Implication of musk deer (Moschus spp.) depletion from hunter reports and dung transect data in northwest Yunnan,China

Musk deer (Moschus spp.) have been over-exploited leading to steep population declines. The demand for musk for its use in medicine and perfumery industries poses the biggest threat to musk deer. The present study aimed to assess the depletion level of musk deer over time in northwest Yunnan by using hunter reports and dung transect data. Hunters were asked to recall musk gland catch-effort changes between the early 1990s and over two years (January 2009 to December 2010). Surveys using dung transect methodology were conducted on musk deer population in poaching and non-poaching sites. The results obtained revealed that the hunting frequency is constant in the two periods. Annual musk gland catch per hunter significantly declined from 7.4 (SD = 1.8) in the early 1990s to 0.7 (SD = 0.9) over the 2009–2010 period. A significantly higher proportion of hunters used snares over the 2009–2010 period (74%) than in the early 1990s (18%). The majority of the informants (70%) reported that the average distance from the village at which hunters operated has increased over the later two year period. The mean dung encounter rate values in the non-poaching site were about six times higher than that in poaching sites. Hunter responses were consistent with dung transect data that suggest musk deer population is seriously compromised throughout its range in northwest Yunnan. The present study has shown that catch-effort data from hunter reports can provide pertinent information about the current hunting practices and problems of prey depletion and for design of conservation interventions for hunted species.     

The Impact of Hunting on the Mammalian Fauna of Tropical Asian Forests

People have hunted mammals in tropical Asian forests for at least 40,000 yr. This period has seen one confirmed global extinction (the giant pangolin, Manis palaeojavanica ) and range restrictions for several large mammals, but there is no strong evidence for unsustainable hunting pressure until the last 2000–3000 yr, when elephants, rhinoceroses, and several other species were progressively eliminated from the large parts of their ranges. Regional declines in most species have occurred largely within the last 50 yr. Recent subsistence hunting has typically focused on pigs and deer (hunted with dogs and spears or with snares), monkeys and other arboreal mammals (often caught with blowpipes), and porcupines and other rodents (smoked or dug out of burrows). Over the last 50 yr, the importance of hunting for subsistence has been increasingly outweighed by hunting for the market. The hunted biomass is dominated by the same species as before, sold mostly for local consumption, but numerous additional species are targeted for the colossal regional trade in wild animals and their parts for food, medicines, raw materials, and pets. Many populations of mammalian dispersers of large seeds and understory browsers have been depleted or eliminated, while seed predators have had a more variable fate. Most of this hunting is now illegal, but the law enforcement is generally weak. However, examples of successful enforcement show that hunting impacts can be greatly reduced where there is sufficient political will. Ending the trade in wild animals and their parts should have the highest regional conservation priority.     

Comparing data of different survey methods for sustainable wildlife management in hunting areas: the case of Tarangire–Manyara ecosystem,northern Tanzania

Cost–benefit considerations of wildlife monitoring are essential, particularly, in areas outside national park boundaries, where resources for conducting wildlife censuses are scarce, but that, at the same time, are subject to high pressure for wildlife utilization, such as hunting. Large mammal survey data from various sources were collated and analyzed to investigate which methods are best suited for monitoring purposes at low cost in the Tarangire–Manyara ecosystem, northern Tanzania. Our results indicate that primary data (from aerial and road transects counts) that involve direct species observations, although sometimes very expensive, are required for establishing the status of the target species in terms of density or population size. Concomitantly, secondary data from various sources, such as interviews, hunting quota, and damage reports, obtained over wide areas and over longer periods of time, can provide important information on presence/absence and distribution of species within an area. In addition, the study revealed that hunting quotas set did not correlate with species abundance/numbers from the primary data surveys for most of the large mammals hunted within the ecosystem. For a better conservation and management of wildlife, in particular with respect to the forthcoming formation of Wildlife Management Areas, we propose an integrated approach to wildlife monitoring using primary and secondary data sources through the involvement of local people’s knowledge.     

A bioeconomic analysis of community wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe

This paper uses a bio-economic model to analyze wildlife conservation in two habitats adjacent to a national park by two types of communities in Zimbabwe. One community is made up of peasant farmers operating under a benefit-sharing scheme such as CAMPFIRE, while the other is made up of commercial farmers practicing game farming in a conservancy. Both communities exploit wildlife by selling hunting licenses to foreign hunters but with different levels of success. The park agency plays a central role by authorizing the harvest quota for each community. We formulate a bio-economic model for the three agents, optimize the market problem for each agent and compare the outcomes with the social planner’s solution. Our results show that the level of anti-poaching enforcement by the park agency is suboptimal, while anti-poaching effort exerted by the conservancy community achieves social optimality. CAMPFIRE communities exert more poaching effort than what the social planner would recommend. Our model shows that institutional reforms in benefit-sharing schemes could result in the decisions of CAMPFIRE communities gravitating towards the social optimum.     

Do Ranger Stations Deter Poaching Activity in National Parks in Thailand?

As protected areas become more accessible via transportation networks, fragmentation, and encroachment from the borders, carnivores in these areas frequently decline. To counter these pressures, patrolling and active wildlife enforcement are widely accepted as fundamental conservation strategies. Using the case example of Khao Yai National Park (KYNP) and data from a camera trap survey, we modeled and evaluated the effectiveness of ranger stations in reducing human access and illegal activities, and in increasing prey and predator presence. This type of data and analysis is needed to monitor and evaluate enforcement effectiveness and develop adaptive management strategies. At KYNP, we used camera‐trapping data as a proxy to evaluate whether or not a positive impact of ranger stations on wildlife distribution could outweigh edge effects from human disturbance. We assessed factors affecting the distribution of poachers and wildlife using Maxent. Our analysis was based on 217 camera trap locations (6260 trap nights) and suggests that ungulates and poachers persist nearby ranger stations. Rangers should increase patrolling efforts of border areas; however, increasing wildlife patrolling in inaccessible areas with mobile range units may be more effective than establishing more ranger stations along park boundaries.     

Mismatches between supply and demand in wildlife tourism: Insights for assessing cultural ecosystem services

Assessing cultural ecosystem services provided by biodiversity requires a combination of ecological and social approaches. In this study, we investigated the capacity of large African mammal species to provide the cultural ecosystem service of wildlife tourism by using a supply and demand framework. First, we tested the relationship between supply and demand for large mammal species in wildlife tourism. Second, we tested whether the trophic level and body size of mammals influenced the mismatch between supply and demand, and whether the patterns of mismatches were consistent among four protected areas (PAs) in three Southern African countries. To quantify supply of species, we counted large mammals along 196 five km road transects within the four PAs; to estimate demand, we gathered 651 face-to-face questionnaires of wildlife tourists and distinguished between their expectation and hope to see specific species. Results show that a higher supply of large mammal species increased the expectation to see a species (linear regression slope β = 0.28, p < 0.01), whereas supply did not affect the hopes to see a specific species (β = −0.04, p = 0.63). Analyses of mismatches revealed that predator species were more demanded in relation to their supply than ungulates. Finally, we found that the demands of wildlife tourists for mammal species in relation to their supply were consistent across the four PAs. Supply-demand analyses reveal that species’ traits, in particular trophic level, shape the hopes of wildlife tourists to see specific mammal species. We propose that the quantification of supply-demand mismatches can be used to identify charismatic species and relevant species’ traits, and can be applied for wildlife tourism assessments within as well as across regions. Supply-demand analyses provide a useful framework and deliver indicators for better assessing cultural ecosystem services involving wildlife and nature-based tourism, and can be used for conservation management.     

Wildlife in the life of local people of the semi-arid Argentine Chaco

The semi-arid Argentine Chaco is inhabited by mestizo people, who live on an economy of subsistence based on the use of natural resources and livestock ranching. I investigated the dietary and economic importance of wildlife for local people. Through interviews and participant observation, I found that wildlife is used primarily as food, providing about a third of the total meat consumed by local peasants. Local people use at least 26 species of wildlife although they concentrate on few species. Small species, Chacoan cavies and armadillos, are consumed most, representing 48% of the total wild meat consumed. Consumption of wild meat follows seasonal patterns determined by hunting methods, preferences for meat quality and species activity patterns. The consumptive value of wild meat is high in comparison with wages, but lower in comparison with forest exploitation. Illegal commercialization of wildlife is practiced mainly by villagers and by outsiders and it affects endangered species. Patterns of use of wildlife by local people differ from other Latin American groups in terms of the range of species hunted and the role that hunting plays in local people’ livelihoods. The first steps towards conservation of this increasingly threatened region should involve decreasing hunting by local people of the more vulnerable species and controlling all illegal commercial hunting.     

Effectiveness of Protected Areas for biodiversity conservation: Mammal occupancy patterns in the Iguaçu National Park,Brazil

Protected areas – widely recognized as the main strategy for biodiversity conservation – have greatly expanded, covering ∼15% of the Earth; however, we still lack detailed information on biodiversity to evaluate their effectiveness. This is particularly urgent for biodiversity hotspots where protected areas are islands within human modified landscapes. We focus on mammals of the Iguaçu National Park – one of the most important parks in the Atlantic Forest hotspot – to evaluate the effectiveness of protected areas in conserving biodiversity. We monitored 300 km² with 37 cameras traps during five years to assess if (1) species occupancy declined over time, and (2) if species occupancy/detectability are spatially associated with illegal hunting, proximity to tourism infrastructure and distance from the edge, estimating the proportion of the park where these negative effects are detected. Many species that are rare in most Atlantic Forest remnants presented high occupancy within the park, and no decline in occupancy was observed over time. However, the distribution of 11 species was spatially associated primarily with the distance from the edge and proximity to tourism infrastructure, resulting in a decline, across half of the park area, from 13 to 23% in occupancy and from 19 to 35% in detectability (values averaged among species). These negative effects should be even stronger on smaller protected areas, which are the majority in highly altered hotspots. Re-establishing and properly managing buffer zones and restricting tourism to localized areas are essential to ensure the effectiveness of protected areas for biodiversity conservation.     

The nature of hunting around the Western Corridor of Serengeti National Park, Tanzania

In many parts of Africa, illegal hunting is considered the most pressing issue in protected areas. Poaching has remained a persistent problem through the 50 year long history of Serengeti National Park. Around 2 million people live along the borders of the park. Poverty is widespread, and the population is increasing rapidly. In this paper we examine the local perceptions of importance and reasons for hunting, gender differences and opinions about mitigating measures among villagers around Serengetis Western Corridor. The data were collected through interviewing 590 persons in eight villages close to the borders of the park. Hunting is driven by the need to not only increase food supply and cash income, but also fulfil cultural and social needs. We also identified a proactive attitude in the rural communities towards reducing illegal hunting and more constructive relationships with the management authorities of the national park. The role of hunting in community life extends beyond the immediate poverty issue, and should be seen as an element in the larger development agenda of rural Tanzania and the quest for models for sustainable wildlife management.     

Quantifying human disturbance on antipredator behavior and flush initiation distance in yellow-bellied marmots

Human disturbance may differentially affect the behavior of wild animals and such behavioral perturbations may have fitness consequences. To understand the effects of specific types of human disturbance on antipredator behavior, a behavior whose performance enhances survival, we studied yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris). We quantified both antipredator vigilance and the flight initiation distance of the marmots to an approaching human in six different colony sites where we also quantified the frequency and type of human visitation. We developed an analysis framework, using linear mixed models, and found that: (1) when the presence of motorized vehicles and bicycles was high, marmots increased the proportion of time spent vigilant (pseudo R² = 0.33 and 0.31 for motorized vehicles and bicycles, P < 0.05) and decreased the time spent foraging (pseudo R² = 0.29 and 0.23 for motorized vehicles and bicycles, P < 0.05), (2) there was no significant effect of the presence of pedestrians on the time allocated to vigilance and foraging (pseudo R² = 0.25 and 0.19, P > 0.05), (3) marmots decreased the flight initiation distance as disturbance of motorized vehicles (pseudo R² = 0.85) and pedestrians (pseudo R² = 0.84) increased (P < 0.05), and (4) when we considered bicycles as the disturbance, juveniles tolerated closer approaches than adults or yearlings (P < 0.001). Marmots thus responded to some human disturbance by adjusting time spent in foraging and shortening the tolerance distance. Since these behavioral responses could have significant implications for survival and reproduction, we should generally view human disturbance as something that can influence natural antipredator behavior. Importantly, based on an understanding of the differential effects of human activities on wildlife, reducing human disturbance should be taken into account for wildlife management. In addition, our approach will be useful to quantify differential effects of humans on wildlife and to enhance our ability to manage those impacts.     

Protected Areas in Tropical Africa: Assessing Threats and Conservation Activities

Numerous protected areas (PAs) have been created in Africa to safeguard wildlife and other natural resources. However, significant threats from anthropogenic activities and decline of wildlife populations persist, while conservation efforts in most PAs are still minimal. We assessed the impact level of the most common threats to wildlife within PAs in tropical Africa and the relationship of conservation activities with threat impact level. We collated data on 98 PAs with tropical forest cover from 15 countries across West, Central and East Africa. For this, we assembled information about local threats as well as conservation activities from published and unpublished literature, and questionnaires sent to long-term field workers. We constructed general linear models to test the significance of specific conservation activities in relation to the threat impact level. Subsistence and commercial hunting were identified as the most common direct threats to wildlife and found to be most prevalent in West and Central Africa. Agriculture and logging represented the most common indirect threats, and were most prevalent in West Africa. We found that the long-term presence of conservation activities (such as law enforcement, research and tourism) was associated with lower threat impact levels. Our results highlight deficiencies in the management effectiveness of several PAs across tropical Africa, and conclude that PA management should invest more into conservation activities with long-term duration.     

The changing incidence of human papillomavirus-associated oropharyngeal cancer using multiple imputation from 2000 to 2010 at a Comprehensive Cancer Centre

Introduction Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a risk and prognostic factor for oropharyngeal cancer (OPC). Determining whether the incidence of HPV-associated OPC is rising informs health policy. Methods HPV status was ascribed using p16 immunohistochemistry in 683/1474 OPC patients identified from the Princess Margaret Hospital's Cancer Registry (from 2000 to 2010). Missing p16 data was estimated using multiple (n = 100) imputation (MI) and validated using an independent OPC cohort (n = 214). Non-OPC head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) (n = 3262) were also used for time-trend comparison. Regression was used to compare HNSCC subsets and time-trends. The c-index was used to measure the predictive ability of MI. Results The incidence of OPC rose from 23.3% of all HNSCC in 2000 to 31.2% in 2010 (p = 0.002). In the subset of OPC tested for p16, there was no change in p16 positivity over time (p = 0.9). However, p16 testing became more frequent over time (p < 0.0001), but was nonetheless biased, favouring never-smokers [OR 1.87 (95% CI 1.29–2.70)] and tumors of the tonsil [OR 2.30 (1.52–3.47)] or base-of-tongue [OR 1.72 (1.10–2.70)]. These same factors were also associated with p16-positivity [ORs 3.22 (1.27–8.16), 7.26 (3.50–15.1), 5.83 (2.70–12.7), respectively]. Following MI and normalization, the proportion of OPC that was p16-associated rose from 39.8% in 2000 to 65.0% in 2010, p = 0.002, fully explaining the rise in OPC in our patient population. Conclusion The rise in HNSCC referrals seen from 2000 to 2010 at our institution was driven primarily by p16-associated OPC. MI was necessary to derive reliable conclusions when cases with missing data are considerable.     

Habitat selection by endangered Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) and impacts of livestock grazing in Nepal Himalaya: Implications for conservation

Habitat management within and outside protected areas is a key to effective conservation of wildlife. This is particularly vital for declining wildlife populations within the boundary of conservation areas, while sharing their potential habitat range with foraging livestock. In an effort to understand the habitat selection by Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) and explore any potential impacts of livestock grazing, we conducted the present study in a conservation area of central Nepal Himalaya. We recorded data on musk deer and livestock presence and absence (based on signs of fecal pellet, footprint, and resting site) along the elevational transect with associated topographic features (elevation, slope, aspect, distance to water, and vantage point distance) and vegetation features (tree spp., shrub spp., herb spp., and canopy-cover). Using logistic regression model we found that elevation, aspect, canopy-cover, and tree spp. in the area significantly affect the likelihood of habitat selection by musk deer. In particular, they selected the southern aspect of the area with elevation ≥ 3529 m, canopy-cover ≥ 42%, and with stands of Pinus spp. and Abies spp. Slope and canopy-cover significantly affected the foraging area selection by livestock. They selected the gentler slopes in the northern aspect of the area with altitude < 3529 m and canopy-cover < 42%. Also, presence of one group of herbivore (i.e. musk deer and livestock) was not found to affect the likelihood of habitat selection by the other group. These independent habitat selections are possibly the responses to morphological and behavioral adaptations than to impacts and interactions between these two groups of herbivores. We suggest to avoid any disturbances and livestock grazing on the area that disrupt the resources and conditions likely selected and occupied by musk deer population.     

Wildlife value orientations as predicting factors in support of reintroducing bison and of wolves migrating to Germany

In the light of the worldwide biodiversity convention, the return of the wolf and the planned reintroduction of the European bison to Germany are seen as success stories in efforts to protect biological diversity. Prerequisite to the successful long-term reintroduction of wild animals is the support and approval of the return of animal populations by the general public. To better understand opinions towards wildlife and wildlife management, which often underlie controversies, the influence of wildlife related value orientations has been the focus of empirical research in recent years. In the current study, we examined wildlife value orientations in a sample of German students (n = 364) majoring in three different university subjects: agriculture; landscape ecology/nature conservation; and, social sciences. Analysis showed internal consistencies among the items comprising the wildlife value orientation scale. As theoretically expected, results of multiple regression analysis revealed wildlife value orientations have great impact on a decision to support the return of wolves and bison to Germany. In conclusion, the instrument, developed in the US, turned out to be reliable and had predictive value for the use in Germany. Also, we found differences in wildlife value orientation in relation to the factors of gender and academic background. A value orientation that focuses on mutualism was usually subjected to gender and academic major interaction effects. Males and females within and between student groups placed different weight on wildlife value orientations, possibly generating a potential for conflicts relating to wildlife management decisions, such as the reintroduction of bison or the support of wolves’ return.     

Evaluation of Effects of Harvest on Alligator Populations in Louisiana

Biologists with the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Louisiana, USA, have managed statewide annual harvest of alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) for 35 years (1981–present). We collected and analyzed harvest data for Louisiana alligators to determine the effects of harvest on the population structure, focusing on the larger size classes (≥274 cm) of this slow-growing species. Linear regression analyses revealed that body size-class structure, based on overall average size and the percentage of animals harvested in the larger size classes was relatively stable. Annual aerial alligator nest counts indicated a continual growth of the population, and over time harvested alligators maintained a constant average size. Analyses of population size (based on number of nests and population modeling) indicated that the current annual harvest represents approximately 3% of the population. Linear regression analysis showed that annual hunter success declined only slightly during the study period, and the scheduling of the hunt season after the hatch period and recommended hunting in areas not frequented by breeding females provides economic opportunities for hunters to participate in a sustainable harvest that preserves the larger size classes of alligators in the population. Strict enforcement of existing laws was a key factor responsible for the success of this harvest program. Comparison of alligator population size and number of harvest-related citations indicated that illegal harvest did not have a negative effect on population size, and linear regression analyses revealed that the rate of increase in citations was lower than the increase in populations over the study period. The results of this harvest program indicated that alligators can be hunted in a sustainable manner if hunting is conducted after the hatch period and occurs in areas that primarily exclude the harvest of adult females, and strict law enforcement curbs illegal activities that negatively affect populations. © 2021 The Authors. The Journal of Wildlife Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of The Wildlife Society.     

The pattern of poaching signs in Ugalla Game Reserve,western Tanzania

Illegal harvesting of wildlife resources is an important challenge facing protected areas in Africa. A better understanding of its nature would improve the way in which it is managed. We investigated the degree of poaching into different types of natural resources and its management implications in Ugalla Game Reserve, western Tanzania, using data on spatial distribution of poaching signs. Poaching signs were distributed nonrandomly through the reserve, which suggested that poachers targeted particular resources at certain areas of the reserve. Logging was the predominant illegal activity, followed by bushmeat hunting and illegal fishing. Logging signs were widespread at Ugalla east and Ugalla south. The latter also contained the highest encounter rate of bushmeat signs. Illegal fishing was extensive around the main rivers in the reserve. For improved conservation enforcement in western Tanzania and similar ecosystems, conservation efforts should take into consideration the distribution and composition of different types of poaching.     

云南省2014—2017年收容救护野生动物调查

通过对2014-2017年云南省被收容救护野生动物的物种数量、来源、频次等的调查和分析,结果发现:(1)云南省收容救护的野生动物超过93科269种,共计21 784只;其中,外来物种超过35种,以鸟类的种类和数量最多;(2)收容救护动物主要来源于执法单位移交,共20 485只,占94%;(3)非法动物贸易市场和渠道、人兽冲突、违规经营、民众缺乏对动物习性的了解是动物被收容救护的主要原因。管理部门需要加大监管力度,加强执法,严厉打击野生动物非法贸易,建立健全野生动物及制品市场准入机制,加强野生动物科普宣教工作,减少民众误抓误捉、随意放生外来物种等行为,进一步完善提高野生动物保护工作。     

Extent and ecological consequences of hunting in Central African rainforests in the twenty-first century

Humans have hunted wildlife in Central Africa for millennia. Today, however, many species are being rapidly extirpated and sanctuaries for wildlife are dwindling. Almost all Central Africa''s forests are now accessible to hunters. Drastic declines of large mammals have been caused in the past 20 years by the commercial trade for meat or ivory. We review a growing body of empirical data which shows that trophic webs are significantly disrupted in the region, with knock-on effects for other ecological functions, including seed dispersal and forest regeneration. Plausible scenarios for land-use change indicate that increasing extraction pressure on Central African forests is likely to usher in new worker populations and to intensify the hunting impacts and trophic cascade disruption already in progress, unless serious efforts are made for hunting regulation. The profound ecological changes initiated by hunting will not mitigate and may even exacerbate the predicted effects of climate change for the region. We hypothesize that, in the near future, the trophic changes brought about by hunting will have a larger and more rapid impact on Central African rainforest structure and function than the direct impacts of climate change on the vegetation. Immediate hunting regulation is vital for the survival of the Central African rainforest ecosystem.