Understanding social demand for sustainable nature conservation. The case of a protected natural space in South-Eastern Spain

The implementation of sustainable management plans for protected areas is one of the main challenges for public institutions. These plans involve public participation and the assessment of social benefits provided by these open spaces. This work proposes the use of choice experiments methodology for the evaluation of management alternatives for a protected area. The case study within this work is El Valle and Carrascoy Natural Park, which is included in the Natura 2000 Network. This Protected Natural Area (PNA) is located in a peri-urban area; thus, it combines high natural values and high anthropic pressure. A Choice Experiment (CE) was designed through consultation with the Park managers and technicians, and it was applied to a representative sample of the population within the Region of Murcia (South-Eastern Spain). CE allowed an estimation of the value of different management alternatives, classified according to the three main sustainability areas: social; economic; and, environmental. The results show population's demand for environmental management alternatives, such as protection of flora and fauna and promotion of ecotourism, as well as a rejection of quarrying in the PNA. The economic values estimated allow the proposal of a distribution of the annual budget of the PNA according to the social demand.     

Role of a geodatabase to assess the distribution of plants of conservation interest in a large protected area: A case study for a major national park in Italy

We use a geodatabase to investigate the distribution patterns of an important subset of floristic reports recorded for the Parco Nazionale delle Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna in the northern Apennines, Italy. This database was analysed using spatial statistical techniques and a digital elevation model. Significant relationships between species presence, sampling effort and species richness were then analysed in relation to topographical variables and to an existing vegetation map. Report-based rarefaction techniques were used to compare areas having different numbers of species recorded. Overall, the analysis shows that some areas of the park are richer in species of conservation interest than others, and that these have been more intensely investigated. Meanwhile, for other areas, botanical knowledge is scarce or even absent. This has led to clustering and redundancy of floristic data in some areas. The study confirms that the existence of a complete and up-to-date geodatabase creates a valuable resource which enables information gaps to be bridged. Such gaps often exist in biological databases for rare and narrowly distributed species. The wider application of these analyses should also give useful indications of how the incidences of these species of conservation interest are associated with particular environmental variables.     

Assessing the potential of a protected area for fish conservation in a neotropical wetland

Freshwater habitats are among the most impacted ecosystem on Earth. Consequently, reserves have been implemented in an attempt to reduce the threat to freshwater biodiversity. However, few studies have evaluated how effective these protected areas (PA) are for the conservation of freshwater organisms. In the present study, we compared species richness, community composition and density of small-bodied fishes between lagoons within an eight-year-old reserve (i.e. protected lagoons) with those outside the reserve (i.e. unprotected lagoons) in a river-floodplain system that is exposed to seasonal flooding. The unprotected lagoons have been submitted to a light fishing pressure mainly targeting small-sized fishes for sale as baits. Our results showed no differences between the lagoons inside the reserve with those outside in any of the community properties measured. However, we registered an overall tendency of abundance reduction among the species used as baits in unprotected lagoons. Considering the high degree of oversight in the PA and the low fishing pressure among unprotected lagoons, it is possible that the positive effects promoted by the reserve on fish assemblages are being exported towards unprotected lagoons and thus offsetting a portion of the anthropogenic impacts. We conclude that the protection provided by the reserve is very efficient in river-floodplain systems, because not only it protects the biota inside the reserve but also act as a source of propagules to unprotected areas during the rainy season when all the aquatic subsystems are connected by the flood.     

Rural change and nature conservation in Africa: A case study from Swaziland

High population growth and deteriorating economic conditions imperil Africa's natural environment. Conservationists are trying to cope with the threat by working in rural communities. Yet it is unclear whether they can be effective when social and economic change in rural areas is so rapid. Northeast Swaziland provides a case study. The landscape has been transformed since the 1950s, and conservationists are the only people now giving nature conservation a high priority. Land uses incompatible with local nature reserves are supported because they provide jobs. Thus, conservationists find themselves facing a world where wildlife is increasingly devalued as the forces of change accelerate. This paper concludes: (1) conservationists must expand their influence into rural communities, (2) an integrated development and conservation plan is required for northeastern Swaziland, and (3) only the alleviation of poverty will secure the future of nature conservation in Swaziland as well as the rest of Africa.     

Modeling the trophic effects of marine protected area zoning policies: A case study

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are increasingly being recognized as an alternative management tool for conserving marine resources and ecosystems. By integrating organism dispersal rates, ecosystem interactions and fishing effort dynamics, ECOSPACE, a spatially explicit ecosystem-based modeling tool, allowed us to compare the ecological consequences of alternative MPA zoning policies within the proposed Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area, located off the west coast of British Columbia, Canada. The desired effects of MPAs include higher fishery yields, the conservation of biodiversity, and/or the preservation of intact ecosystems. However, ECOSPACE predicts that when MPAs are small, species interactions and movements may make these objectives difficult to achieve. ECOSPACE suggests that the effects of MPAs are reduced at their boundaries where fishing effort is predicted to concentrate. Furthermore, top predators may become more abundant within MPAs, which could lead to a depression of their prey species and a subsequent increase of species at even lower trophic levels. Trophic cascade patterns and density gradients across boundaries are nontrivial departures from our simple expectations of how MPAs protect areas and will force us to reconsider what constitutes effective conservation. Our ECOSPACE model indicates that the establishment of multi-use buffer zones may help alleviate these realistic but worrisome ecological predictions. When coupled with an overall reduction in harvest pressure, ECOSPACE suggests that a MPA with a large core `no-take' zone and large buffer will result in the greatest increase in organism biomass. The use of marine zoning may be an effective management tactic to reduce social conflict and conserve marine ecosystems.     

DNA barcoding as an effective tool to complement wetland management: A case study of a protected area in Italy

In recent years, DNA barcoding has been suggested as a useful molecular technique to complement traditional taxonomic expertise for fast species identification and biodiversity inventories. In this study, in situ application of DNA barcodes was tested on the plant community of a wetland area in central Italy. Four cpDNA markers (trnH–psbA, rbcL, rpoC1, and matK) were tested on 40 plant species, 26 of which strictly connected to the aquatic habitat. Universality of the method, ease of data retrieval, and correct assignation of the genetic markers to each species were evaluated. The markers showed different prospects of reliable applicability. The obtained sequences were blasted against the NCBI database to verify the correct species identification. A score ranging between 32% and 67% was achieved. Overall, eight species remained unidentified with all the tested barcodes due to the absence of conspecific sequences in the available databases. This work demonstrates some limitations in the applicability of DNA barcoding to accomplish complete taxonomical surveys. Difficulties encountered in this study urge refinement of technical protocols and accessibility to wider databases. Future technological advances and larger sample sets will certainly reinforce DNA barcoding as a useful tool to address knowledge and conservation of wetlands.     

Effectiveness of the protected area network in biodiversity conservation: a case-study of Meghalaya state

The North-Eastern region of India is significant for biodiversity conservation because of its floristic richness and high levels of endemism. Deforestation levels are high in the region due to anthropogenic pressures. We accessed various literature sources to create a database for Meghalaya state containing information on plant species, habit, altitudinal distribution, endemism, and endangered status. Information on the existing protected area network (type, extent, and altitudinal representation) was added to the database. The database was used to assess the effectiveness of the existing protected area network in conserving the floristic biodiversity of the state. Of a total of 3331 plant species, 1236 (37.11%) are endemic of Meghalaya and 133 (4%) are confined to 'sacred forests'. However, 'sacred forests' are not legally protected areas. Only 32 220 ha (1.43% of the state's geographical area) is protected under the category of National Park or Sanctuary. Although 212 species (17.15% of the state's endemic species) occur only in Meghalaya at altitudes above 1500 m, none of the forests at these altitudes are protected as National Parks or Sanctuaries. We conclude that the existing protected area network does not effectively conserve the state's unique biodiversity and suggest measures by which its effectiveness might be increased.     

中国公众的国际野生动物保护意愿调查: 以非洲象为例

我国高度重视野生动物保护事业, 认真履行野生动物保护国际义务, 积极鼓励公众参与, 以扩大野生动物保护事业的公众基础。已有文献多关注了公众的国内野生动物保护意愿, 鲜有文献关注公众对国际野生动物的保护意愿, 难以为促进公众参与国际野生动物保护事业提供决策参考。本研究以全球旗舰物种非洲象(Loxodonta africana)为例, 结合非洲象保护的相关研究与实践, 构建拓展的计划行为理论框架, 通过线下和线上调研获取数据, 运用结构方程模型, 从态度、规范、知觉行为控制、过去经验及个体特征五个方面, 分析了我国公众的非洲象保护意愿及影响因素。结果表明: (1) 68.5%的公众具有非洲象保护愿意; (2)公众规范(系数为0.422)、过去经验(系数为0.253)、知觉行为控制(系数为0.160)、保护态度(系数为0.156)对保护意愿存在显著的正向影响; 男性公众(系数为-0.054)的保护意愿低于女性公众; 居住在西部地区的公众(系数为0.066)保护意愿更高; (3)模型整体通过了拟合检验, 表明研究结果具有稳健性。本研究的政策建议如下: (1)明确政策导向作用, 提升公众的道德义务感和社会责任感; (2)加强宣传教育, 丰富公众知识经验, 培育公众积极的保护态度; (3)拓宽保护参与渠道, 提高公众知觉行为控制; (4)制定合理方案, 提升保护宣教等实践活动成效。     

Vegetation mapping and nature conservation: a case study in Terceira Island (Azores)

In order to emphasize the importance of vegetation mapping for nature conservation purposes a case study in Terceira island (Azores) is presented, in which the importance of the natural vegetation of the eastern slope of Santa Bárbara volcano (which is part of the Site of Community Importance of Santa Bárbara–Pico Alto) is evaluated through the elaboration of its vegetation map. Fourteen (14) different natural vegetation types were identified: grasslands (1 type), peat bogs (2 types), scrubs (2), forests (5), successional vegetation (3) and vegetation of rocky slopes (1). All communities are protected under the Habitat and Species Directive (EC/92/43) and most of them are endemic to the Azores Islands. This fact, together with the significant number of Azorean endemic taxa (18), Macaronesian endemic taxa (5) and species protected under the Habitat and Species Directive (7), gives this area an important conservation value that justifies future protection actions. Vegetation mapping is an important tool for the characterization, evaluation and implementation of managing plans of natural areas of the Azores islands. The use of a floristic-based classification, supported by multivariate analysis and structural data, is an efficient methodology for the construction of these maps. The data collected comprise an important set of information about the distribution and abundance of natural vegetation types and endemic and rare species. This information was not available until now and is indispensable for the elaboration of management plans of Special Zones for Conservation that will be part of the NATURA 2000 network.     

自然保护地生态承载力时空分异研究——以大连金石滩为例

监测自然保护地生态承载力,对了解其时空分异规律及可持续发展有着重要意义。金石滩地质遗迹保护区是国家公园和风景名胜区的结合区域,是生态保护与地区发展间矛盾冲突所在之处,是多身份自然保护地的典型代表区域。以1998、2003、2007、2012、2015、2018年遥感影像和土地利用数据为基础,选取金石滩这个兼具保护与开发多种功能的自然保护地为研究区域,从弹性生态支撑系统、资源环境供容系统、社会经济协调系统3方面构建指标体系,运用模糊综合评价模型研究金石滩生态承载力的时空分异规律。结果表明：（1）在3个准则层中,弹性生态支撑力和资源环境供容力呈现出持续降低的剧烈下降趋势,社会经济协调力呈现先降后升、之后平稳发展的趋势。（2）金石滩生态承载力整体来看从强承载力演变为较弱承载力,1998-2018年自0.7572变为0.2940,近30年来承载力等级降低。（3）海陆生态承载力完全不同,陆地为强、较强承载力,海岸为弱、较弱承载力,自北部陆地向南部海岸逐渐减弱呈现极其不平衡的海陆空间分异。通过对金石滩1998-2018年生态承载力分析,能够反映区域的生态承载力变化情况,可为其他自然保护地的生态承载力评估和可持续发展提供参考。     

Towards harmonious conservation relationships: A framework for understanding protected area staff-local community relationships in developing countries

This paper conceptualises a framework for assessing protected area (PA)–community relationships and is premised on the view that positive PA–community relationships enhance conservation. A meta-synthesis of existing academic literature with a qualitative orientation was used to review the PA staff-community relationships, and data were analysed using an inductive qualitative approach. From a review of 105 published documents focusing on wildlife conservation, community involvement and PA–community relationships, it emerged that relationships are mostly influenced by attitudes. With the case of PA–community relationships, the question that arises is ‘whose attitude’? The paper proposes that both PA staff attitudes and community attitudes play an important role in shaping these relationships. Based on these findings, we propose a PA–community relationship framework that illuminates the human–wildlife interface as critical space in shaping conservation attitudes. In particular, four major factors affecting PA staff-community relationships were identified: (i) history of creation of the PAs focusing on forced relocation, and the fences and fines approach; (ii) benefits and costs associated with living closer to PAs; (iii) socio-demographic factors in which the influences of sex, age, level of education, number of years stayed in the village, experience accrued from working in PAs, household size, number of livestock, sources of income, and level of income; and (iv) community involvement in conservation-related developmental projects. We conclude that enhanced PA–community relationships promote wildlife conservation through participatory approaches and collaboration between PA staff and communities. We recommend for continued assessment and monitoring of PA staff and community relationships in order to allow for sustainable conservation especially in developing countries.     

Using mechanistic models to understand synchrony in forest insect populations: the North American gypsy moth as a case study

In many forest insects, subpopulations fluctuate concurrently across large geographical areas, a phenomenon known as population synchrony. Because of the large spatial scales involved, empirical tests to identify the causes of synchrony are often impractical. Simple models are, therefore, a useful aid to understanding, but data often seem to contradict model predictions. For instance, chaotic population dynamics and limited dispersal are not uncommon among synchronous forest defoliators, yet both make it difficult to achieve synchrony in simple models. To test whether this discrepancy can be explained by more realistic models, we introduced dispersal and spatially correlated stochasticity into a mechanistic population model for the North American gypsy moth Lymantria dispar. The resulting model shows both chaotic dynamics and spatial synchrony, suggesting that chaos and synchrony can be reconciled by the incorporation of realistic dynamics and spatial structure. By relating alterations in model structure to changes in synchrony levels, we show that the synchrony is due to a combination of spatial covariance in environmental stochasticity and the origins of chaos in our multispecies model.     

Using learning networks to understand complex systems: a case study of biological,geophysical and social research in the Amazon

Developing high‐quality scientific research will be most effective if research communities with diverse skills and interests are able to share information and knowledge, are aware of the major challenges across disciplines, and can exploit economies of scale to provide robust answers and better inform policy. We evaluate opportunities and challenges facing the development of a more interactive research environment by developing an interdisciplinary synthesis of research on a single geographic region. We focus on the Amazon as it is of enormous regional and global environmental importance and faces a highly uncertain future. To take stock of existing knowledge and provide a framework for analysis we present a set of mini‐reviews from fourteen different areas of research, encompassing taxonomy, biodiversity, biogeography, vegetation dynamics, landscape ecology, earth‐atmosphere interactions, ecosystem processes, fire, deforestation dynamics, hydrology, hunting, conservation planning, livelihoods, and payments for ecosystem services. Each review highlights the current state of knowledge and identifies research priorities, including major challenges and opportunities. We show that while substantial progress is being made across many areas of scientific research, our understanding of specific issues is often dependent on knowledge from other disciplines. Accelerating the acquisition of reliable and contextualized knowledge about the fate of complex pristine and modified ecosystems is partly dependent on our ability to exploit economies of scale in shared resources and technical expertise, recognise and make explicit interconnections and feedbacks among sub‐disciplines, increase the temporal and spatial scale of existing studies, and improve the dissemination of scientific findings to policy makers and society at large. Enhancing interaction among research efforts is vital if we are to make the most of limited funds and overcome the challenges posed by addressing large‐scale interdisciplinary questions. Bringing together a diverse scientific community with a single geographic focus can help increase awareness of research questions both within and among disciplines, and reveal the opportunities that may exist for advancing acquisition of reliable knowledge. This approach could be useful for a variety of globally important scientific questions.     

自然保护地环境解说资源研究: 以九寨沟芦苇海解说步道为例

环境解说是自然保护地实现自然保护与环境教育目标的重要手段。目前我国自然保护地对解说资源的时空分布研究不足, 且缺乏相应的实地调查方法, 限制了解说系统的发展, 难以满足公众对自然认知的需要, 达不到环境教育的目的。开展解说资源的调查与研究, 有助于更好地展示保护地的资源独特性和重要性。本文以九寨沟国家级自然保护区芦苇海解说步道为例, 总结了解说资源的6个选择标准, 并对区域的解说资源进行调查和监测, 以期为我国自然保护地体系的环境解说资源调查和解说系统构建提供方法借鉴。芦苇海解说步道共筛选得到195种解说资源, 包括植物与菌类100种、动物62种、生态系统类型5种、地质与水文7种、天象与气候2种、文化资源19种。空间上, 植物与菌类、动物和生态系统类解说资源主要分布于内侧步道, 而文化类解说资源在外侧栈道分布更多; 时间上, 夏秋季解说资源数量最多, 冬春季较少, 且动植物与菌类解说资源的数量具有明显的季节性。基于解说资源的属性、意义和分布特点, 采用主旨式解说(thematic interpretation)方法设计了8条解说主旨, 为解说内容的组织提供参考。     

Integrated conservation and development: evaluating a community-based marine protected area project for equality of socioeconomic impacts

Despite the prevalence of protected areas, evidence of their impacts on people is weak and remains hotly contested in conservation policy. A key question in this debate is whether socioeconomic impacts vary according to social subgroup. Given that social inequity can create conflict and impede poverty reduction, understanding how protected areas differentially affect people is critical to designing them to achieve social and biological goals. Understanding heterogeneous responses to protected areas can improve targeting of management activities and help elucidate the pathways through which impacts of protected areas occur. Here, we assessed whether the socioeconomic impacts of marine protected areas (MPAs)—designed to achieve goals for both conservation and poverty alleviation—differed according to age, gender or religion in associated villages in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Using data from pre-, mid- and post-implementation of the MPAs for control and project villages, we found little empirical evidence that impacts on five key socioeconomic indicators related to poverty differed according to social subgroup. We found suggestive empirical evidence that the effect of the MPAs on environmental knowledge differed by age and religion; over the medium and long terms, younger people and Muslims showed greater improvements compared with older people and Christians, respectively.     

Socioeconomic development shows positive links to the conservation efficiency of China's protected area network

While the protected area (PA) covers >15% of the planet's terrestrial land area and continues to expand, factors determining its effectiveness in conserving endangered species are being debated. We investigated the links between direct anthropogenic pressures, socioeconomic settings, and the coverage of vertebrate taxa by China's PA network, and indicated that high socioeconomic status and low levels of human pressure correlate with high species coverage, with threatened mammals more effectively conserved than reptiles or amphibians. Positive links between conservation outcomes and socioeconomic progress appear linked to local livelihood improvements triggering positive perceptions of local PAs—aided further by ecological compensation and tourism schemes introduced in wealthy areas and reinforced by continued positive conservation outcomes. Socioeconomic development of China's less developed regions might assist regional PA efficiency and achievement of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, while also addressing potential shortcomings from an insufficient past focus on socioeconomic impacts for biodiversity conservation.     

Using a goal programming approach to design and evaluate protected areas for the conservation of multiple dimensions of biodiversity

The decline and loss of biodiversity provoked by human activities have caused ecologists and conservationists to center their attention on the design of conservation priority areas (PAs), focusing mainly on species conservation in terms of richness, rarity and/or vulnerability. However, biodiversity has multiple dimensions, evolutionary processes have recently been labeled the ‘missing component’ of conservation strategies, and increasingly more authors are suggesting that the ecological, evolutionary and historical aspects of biodiversity are key components of conservation planning. In this study we develop a prioritization system to design conservation PAs using the wild terrestrial mammals of the Iberian Peninsula as an example. We aim to contribute to the design of more suitable PAs by integrating ecological components of biodiversity (species richness, vulnerability and rarity), evolutionary aspects (accumulated genetic diversification) and historical information relevant to the study area. After selecting a set of biodiversity indicators, we applied a multi-objective technique (extended goal programming) to construct a combined index, where values in the top 90th percentile were then used to select the PAs. According to our most efficient and satisfactory results, some areas highlighted for their conservation are currently categorized as PAs, however, we found that it would be necessary to reconsider their extent, especially in northern Spain, where the historical aspects of biodiversity (the missing component) are more widely present. The need to determine PAs is unquestionable. However, it should also be a priority to move towards a model of sustainable and fair development.     

生态旅游资源非使用价值评估——以达赉湖自然保护区为例

以达赉湖自然保护区为例,使用条件价值法对达赉湖自然保护区生态旅游资源的非使用价值进行了研究,并探讨了在虚拟情景和真实情景下被调查者支付意愿的差别。采用实地调研方式,进行支付意愿问卷调查,共发放调查问卷700份,回收有效问卷551份。同时,引入8个变量,并采用logit模型分别在虚拟和真实情景下建立各变量和支付意愿之间的关系。结果显示:(1)在真实情景下被调查者的支付意愿(47元/a)要小于虚拟情景下的支付意愿(59元/a),可见,在虚拟情景下评估结果会夸大被调查者的支付意愿。(2)达赉湖自然保护区2010年生态旅游资源非使用价值从4634×104元/a到12765×104元/a。该值仅是根据呼伦贝尔市人口来估计的支付意愿值,其总价值是有限的。但如果用全国总人口进行估计,其内在价值将成倍增加。研究表明:对于达赉湖自然保护区生态旅游资源的保护不仅从生态学角度是非常必要的,而且它对人类也具有巨大的经济价值。对其资源无序的开发既会降低达赉湖自然保护区生态系统的质量也会减少其经济价值。研究结果使得达赉湖自然保护区的开发和保护的价值对比成为可能,并为该保护区制定保护管理策略提供理论基础与科学依据。